



*-'^ ' • ft S « > "S. ji O • * «V? ^-'^ * • • 5 4 ^ ^ A " • A 4\? 






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■ THE 

PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD 

THEIR CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES. 



CHARLES HENRY SNOW, C.E., Sc.D., 

Dean of the School of Applied Science. New York Unii/ersity; 
Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, etc* 



SECUXD EDITIOX, REVISED AXD EXLARGED. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NKW YORK : 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1908. 



I|UBRARY otCONtiKF.'ssl 
I wo Copies rtecuiY j<.' | 

tiSAY 8 1908 
2^ tqaf 

ijLnSSA .•U'.C, « 

2-* 2-<? F< 

COMY 3. 



Copyrighf 1903, 1908, 
CHARLES HENRY SNOW. 



Ehr #tirntlfir Prroa 
IRobrrt jarummmifl anft (£ompailtj 



PREFACE. 



The following is a brief iintechnical presentation of gen- 
eral features characterizing economically important species of 
wood. It is the result of notes originally brought together 
from man\- already existing sources and later augmented, and 
verified so far as possible for the present use, by personal 
observation. The work of preparation has not been as simple 
as the result would indicate, and although great care has been 
taken to check each fact, errors do no doubt exist, although 
it is not believed that there are important ones. 

Engineers while writing upon woods have, save excep- 
tionally, emphasized strength beyond most other properties. 
Other works for expert foresters or botanists are of necessity 
too special, voluminous, fragmental, or technical for the casual 
student. Some popular books on trees, as distinct from 
woods, are available. The present form is distinct from these 
and is intended for those who are not foresters or botanists, 
but who use woods or desire knowledge of their distinguishing 
properties. Allusions to trees, historical and other references, 
aside from those directly regarding woods, are made for 
completeness and in order to mark, distinguish, or separate 
the species. 

Acknowledgments are particularly due to the publications 
of the U. S. Forest Service and to those of Prof Sargent, to Dr. 
B. E. Fernow, to Mr. Raphael G. Zon for suggestions and for tech- 
nical revision, to the Northwestern Lumberman and other trade 



IV PREFACE. 

journals, to many dealers, who have been uniform in their 
courtesy, and incidentally to Mr. Morris K. Jesup, whose mag- 
nificent collection of woods at the New York Museum of Natural 
History has been available to the writer as to others. These, 
with other sources of information acknowledged by the writer, 
and suggested to others, are suitably arranged in the following 
list. Of the 148 illustrations, 138 are original, the drawings 
having been prepared under the supervision of the writer from 
actual specimens by Mr. Irving T. Worthley of Cornell Uni- 
versity and several students of New York University, and the 
photographs by Mr. John Hopfengartner, Jr., of Westchester, 
New York City. Other illustrations are, so far as possible, 
acknowledged in place. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The form or arrangement that found favor in the earlier 
edition has been retained, but the writer believes that the present 
book is far more complete and much more useful than the earlier 
one. Corrections have been made and some sections have been 
rewritten throughout. The additional labor bestowed upon the 
book may be indicated by the fact that over four hundred new 
names have been added to the index. 

C. H. S. 

University Heights, March i, 190S. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
INTRODUCTIOX. 

PAOB 

Section i. Wood. Defiiiitiniis. "Structure." Weights. Coefficients. 
Uses. Consumption. Botanical and Common Nomenclatures. 
Trees. Forestry. General Information, etc i 

PART II. 

EXOGEXOUS SERIES. 

Section 2. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Annual Rings. Medullary 
or Pith Rays. Pith Cavities. Sapwood and Ileartwood. Cross, 
Radiiil and Tangential Distinctions. "Quarter Sawn" Surfaces. 
Decay. Imperfections. Common and Botanical Subdivisions, etc. . ii 

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS. 

Section 3. Distribution. Distinguishing Characteristics. General In- 
formation, etc 16 

O.vK (Quercus). 

Section 4. Distribution. Historical. Structural and Physical Proper- 
ties of Wood. Commercial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics 

of Trees, etc 17 

a. White Oak (Quercus alba) 19 

6. Cow Oak (Quercus michau>:ii') 20 

c. Chestnut Oak (Quercus pricus) 21 

d. Post Oak (Quercus minor) 22 

e. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) 23 

/. Wliite Oak (Quercus garryana) 34 

g. Red Oak (Quercus rubra) 25 

h. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) 26 

t. Spanish Oak (Quercus digitata) 27 

;. Black Oak (Quercus velutina) 28 



vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

k. Live Oak (Quercus virens) 29 

I. California Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) 30 

m. Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis) 31 

n. English Oak (Quercus robur var. pedunculata) 32 

Ash (Fraxinus), etc. 

Section 5. Distribution. Historical. General Properties. Commercial 

Divisions. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 33 

a. White Ash (Fraxinus americana) 35 

h. Red Ash (Fraxinus pubescens) 36 

c. Blue Ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata) 37 

d. Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) 38 

e. Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis) 39 

/. Oregon Ash (Fraxinus oregona) 40 

Elm (Ulmus). 

Section 6. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 

Uses. Landscape Value of Trees, etc 41 

a. White Elm (Ulmus americana) 42 

h. Cork Elm (Ulmus racemosa) 43 

c. Slippery Elm, Red Elm (Ulmus pubescens) 44 

(1. Wing Elm (Ulmus alata) 45 

iVI.\PLE (Acer). 

Section 7. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 

Lfses. Maple Sugar. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 46 

a. Sugar Maple, Hard Maple (Acer Saccharum) 48 

b. Silver Maple, Soft Maple (Acer saccharinum) 49 

c. Red Maple, Swamp Maple (Acer rubrura) 50 

d. Oregon Maple (Acer macrophyllum) 51 

e. Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple (Acer negundo) 52 

Walnut (Juglans) 

Section 8. Historical. Black Walnut in Gun Stocks. Structural and 
Physical Properties of Woods. Burl. White Walnut. English 
Walnut. Circassian Walnut. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, 

etc 53 

a. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), EnglLsh Walnut (Juglansregia) 55 

h. White Walnut, Butternut ^Juglans cinerea) 56 

Hickory (Hicoria). 

Section 9. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 
Uses. " Second-grovrth]" Hickory. Pecan. Botanical Characteris- 
tics of Trees, etc 57 

a. Shagbark (Hicoria ovata) '. . 58 

h. Pignut (Hicoria glabra) 59 

c. Mocker Nut (Hicoria alba) 60 

d. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) 61 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. VU 

Chestnut; f'niNijir\i>iN (r'astanoa). 

PAoa 
Section lo. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 

Uses. Famous Treos. Nuts. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 62 

a. Chestnut ( Castanea dentata) 64 

6. Chiii(|uapin (Castanea puinilai, (Castaiiopsis chry.sophylla). . 65 

Beech, Iuonwood (Fagus), (Carpinus, Ostrya, etc.), etc. 

Section II. Distribution. Early Uses of Beech. Structural and Physi- 
cal Properties of Woods. Uses. Enumeration of Species Affording 

"Ironwooil" 66 

a. Beech (Fagus atropunicea) 68 

h. Ironwood, Blue Beech (Carpinus caroliniana) 69 

c. Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) 70 

Syc.vmore (Platanus). 

Section 12. Confusion of Names. Plistorical, Structural and Physical 

Properties of Wood. Uses. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 71 

a. Sycamore, Buttonball (Platanus occidentalis) 72 

b. California Sycamore (Platanus racemosa) 73 

Birch (Betula). 

Section 13. Distribution. History and Uses of Bark. Structural and 
Physical Properties of Wood. Uses of Wood. Commercial Divi- 
sions of Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 74 

a. White Birch (Betula populifolia) 76 

h. Paper Birch (Betula papjTifera) 77 

c. Red Birch (Betula nigra) 78 

d. Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) 79 

e. Sweet, Cherry Birch (Betula lenta) 80 

Locust; Mesquite (Robinia, Gleditsia, Prosopis). 

Section 14. Confusion of Names. Structural and Physical Properties of 
Wood. Uses. Structural Value of Black Locust. Durability and 

Peculiarities of Mesquite. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc.. . 81 

a. Black Locust, Yellow Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) 83 

h. Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacauthos) 84 

c. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) 85 

Whitewood or Tulip-tree Wood; Popl.\r or Cottonwood; 

Cucumber-tree Wood; B.\ss\vood (Liriodendron), (Populus), 
(Magnolia), (Tilia). 

Section 15. Structural Relations. Peculiarities and Uses of Wood. 

Confusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 86 

a. Whitewood, Tulip-tree or Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron 

tulipifera) 88 

h. Poplar, Large Tooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata) 8g 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

c. Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) go 

d. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Balsam (Populus 

balsamifera) 9' 

e. Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) 92 

/. Basswood, Linden (Tilia americana) 93 

Willow (Salix). 

Section 16. Distribution. Historical. Properties and Uses of Wood. 

Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 94 

a. Black Willow (Salix nigra) ; White Willow (Salix alba) 95 

Catalpa (Catalpa), etc. 

Section 17. Struct'iral Values. Properties of Woods. Botanical Char- 
acteristics of Trees, etc 96 

a. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa) 97 

b. Catalpa (Catalpa catalpa) 98 

Sassafras; Mulberry (Sassafras), (Morus), etc. 

Section 18. Historical. Properties of Sassafras Wood. Properties of 

Mulberry Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 99 

a. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale) 100 

b. Mulberry, Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) 101 

Buckeye; Horse Chestnut (Aesculus). 

Section 19. Structural and Botanical Relationships. Localities. Prop- 
erties and L'ses of Wood 102 

a. Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) 103 

b. Ohio Buckeye fAesculus glabra) 103 

c. Sweet and California Buckeyes (A. octandra and A. califor- 

nica) 104 

Gum (Liquidambar, Nyssa). 

Section 20. Botanical and Structural Relationships. General Proper- 
ties and Uses of Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc . . . 105 

a. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) 106 

6. Sour Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) 107 

c. Cotton Gum, Tupelo (N. aquatica) ; Sour Gum (N. ogeche) . . 108 

Holly; Boxwood; Lignumvit^ (Hex), (Buxus Cornus), 
(Guajacum), etc. 

Section 21. Structural and Physical Properties; also Uses of Holly, of 
Boxwood, and of Lignumvitte Woods. Sources. Substitutes for 
Boxwood, i.e., Flowering Dogwood, Mexican Persimmon and Rose 
Bay. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 109 

a. Holly (Ilex opaca) 1 1 1 

b. Dogwood (Cornus florida) 112 

c. Lignumvit» (Guajacum sanctum) 113 



TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 

Laurel (Magnolia, Rliodoilcndron, Arbutus, etc.), etc. 

PASS 

Section 22. Application of Name Laurel. Structural Peculiarities and 

Uses of Several Products 114 

a. Mountain Laurel (Umbellularia californica), etc 115 

b. Madrofia (Arbutus inenziesii), etc 116 

Persimmon; 0.'5.\ge Orange; Cherry (Diospyros), (Madura), 
(Prunus), etc. 

Section 23. Range. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Persimmon 

Wood, of Osage Orange Wood, of Cherry Wood 117 

a. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Ebony 118 

h. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) 119 

c. Cherry (Prunus serotina) 120 

Teak; Greenheart (Tectona), (Xectandra), etc. 

Section 24. Asiatic Teak. African Teak. Structural Peculiarities and 

Uses of Teak Wood. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Greenlieart 121 

a. Teak (Tectona grandis), Rosewood 122 

h. Greenheart (Nectandra rodioei), etc 123 

Mahogany (Swietenia, Khaya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc.), etc. 

Section 25. Applications of Name Mahogany. Sources of Supply. 
Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Also Uses of Wood, \'eneers, 

Spanish Cedar, White Mahogany, Satinwood 124 

a. Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) 126 

h. White Mahogany (Tabeuia donnell-smithii) 127 

c. Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar (Cedrela odorata) 128 

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). 

Section 26. Localities Common Names. Great Size. Rapid Growih 
and Sanitary Projierties of Trees. Structural Properties of Jarrah, 

Karri and Tuart Woods, etc. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 129 

a. Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) 131 

6. Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) 132 

c. Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) 132 

d. Blue Gum, Fever Tree (Eucalyptus globulus); 134 

(also other s;)ecies.) 

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFT WOODS. 

Section 27. Localities. Historical. Structural and Physical Properties. 

Uses. Botanical Characteristics. General Information 135 

Pine (Pinus). 

Section 28. Structural and Physical Properties. Uses. Botanical 

Characteristics 136 



X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Soft Pine. — Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Sources 

of Supply, etc 137 

Hard Pine. — Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Source 

of Supply, etc 138 

a. White Pine (Pinus strobus) 140 

b. White Pine (Pinus flexilis) 141 

c. Sugar Pine (Pinus lambertiana) 142 

(/. White Pine (Pinus monticolo), etc 143 

e. Georgia, Hard, Yellow or Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) . . . 144 

/. Cuban Pine (Pinus heterophylla) 145 

g. Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata) 146 

/(. Loblolly Pine (Pinus tseda) 147 

i. Bull Pine, Yellow Pine, Western Pine (Pinus ponderosa), etc. 148 

y. Norway Pine, Red Pine (Pinus resinosa), etc 149 

k. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) 150 

I. Northern Pine, Scotch Pine, Dantzic Pine (Pinus sylvestris) . 151 

K.vuRi Pine (Damniara). 

Section 29. Descriptive. Structural and Physical Characteristics. 

"Kauri Gum," etc 152 

/I. K;uiri Pine (Dammara australis): Varnishes, "Gums," 

Resins, etc 152 

Spruce (Picea). 

Section 30. Localities. Structiiral and Physical Peculiarities. Commer- 
cial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics 154 

a. Black Spruce (Picea nigra) 156 

b. Red Spruce (Picea rubens) 156 

c. White Spruce (Picea alba) 157 

d. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni) 158 

e. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) 159 

DouGL.vs Spruce (Pseudotsuga). 

Section 31. Great Size of Trees. Localities. Structural and Physical 

Peculiarities of Wood. Botanical Characteristics 160 

a. Douglas or Red Spruce or Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) 161 

Fin (Abies). 

Section 32. Sources of Supply. Structural and Physical Characteristics. 

Confusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics 162 

a. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) 163 

b. Great Silver Fir (Abies grandis) 164 

c. White Fir (Abies concolor) 165 

d. Red Fir (Abies magnifica) 166 

e. Red Fir. Noble Fir (Abies nobilis) 167 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi 

Hemlock (Tsuga). 

P\fiB 

Section 33. Distriljiitioii. Structural ami Physical Peculiarities of 

Wood. HdtMiiical Characteristics 168 

n. Ilciiilock ('Psusa canadensis) 169 

b. Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) 169 

Larch; Tamahack (Larix). 

Section 34. Historical. Sources. Structural and Physical Peculiari- 
ties. Botanical Characteristics 170 

a. Larch, Tamarack (Larix americana) 171 

h. Larch, Tamarack (Larix occidentalis) 172 

c. Larch, European (Larix europea) 172 

Cf,]>ai{ (Cedrus, Thuya, Chamsecyparis, Libocedrus, Juniperus). 

Section ^S- Confusion of Names. Historical. Structural and Physical 

Peculiarities of Wood. LTses. Commercial Divisions, etc 173 

0. Rod Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) 175 

/). Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), etc 176 

r. Wliite Cedar, Arborvitse, (Thuya occidentalis) 177 

(/. Canoe Cedar, Arborvitae, Giant Arborvitse (Thuya plicata) . . 178 

e. White Cedar (Cham:ecyparis thyoides) 179 

/. Port Orford Cedar, Lawson Cypress (Chamaecyparis law- 

soniana), etc 180 

g. Yellow Cedar, Yellow Cypress, Sitka Cypress (Chamiecyparis 

nootkatensis) 181 

h. Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) 182 

CvpuESs (Cupressus, Taxodium). 

Section 36. Confusion of Names. Sources. Historical. Structural and 

Physical Peculiarities. Commercial Divisions. Fungus Diseases. . 183 
o. Cypress, Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) 185 

Redwood (Sequoia). 

Section 37. Locality. Peculiarities of Trees. Structural and Physical 

Qualities of Wood. Uses. Mammoth Trees 186 

it. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) 188 

b. Ciiant Redwood (Sequoia washingtoniana) j88 



PART in. 
EXDOGEXnUS SERIES. 

Section 38. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Structural and Physical 
Peculiarities of Eodogenous Wood. Uses. General Information. . 



xu TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Palm (Palmace.e). 

page: 
Section 39. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. 

Uses. Botanical Characteristics igi 

(1. Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal pahnetto) 192 

b. Washington Palm ( Washingtunia tilifera) 193 

c. Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) 195 

Yucca (Yucca). 

Section 40. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of AVood. 

Uses, etc 194 

(I. Jo.shua Tree, Yucca (Yucca arborescens) 195 

Bamboo (Bambu.s;e). 

Section 41. Botanical Characteristics. Structural and Physical Pecu- 
liarities of Wood. Growth. Uses in the Orient. Possibilities in 

America, etc 196 

a. Bamboo (Bambusa; vulgaris) 198 



LIST OF PLATES. 



yers. 



'' Frontispiece. Live Oak (Quercus virgiiiiana). 

Plate 2. Exogenous Siruciure in Wood — Yearly Rings or Laye 

" 3. Exogenous Structure in Wood — Medullary or Pith Ray. 

" 4. Exogenous Structure in Wood — Cross-sections Enlarged. 

" 5. Oak (Quercus alba). 

" 6. .'\sli (Fraxiiius americana). 

" 7. Elm (Ulmus americana). 

<< 8. Maple (Acer saccharum). 

" 9. Walnut (Juglansi. 

" ID. Hickory (Hicoria ovata). 

" II. Chestnut (Castanea dentata). 

" 12. Beech (Fagus). 

" 13. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). 

" 14. Birch (Betula). 

" 15. Locust (Robinia, Gleditsia). 

" 16. WhitewooJ (Liriodendron tulipifcra). 

" 17. Black Willow (Salix nigra). 

" iS. Catalpa (Catalpa). 

" 19. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale). 

" 20. Horse Chestnut (/Esculus hippocastanum). 

•' 21. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua;. 

" 22. Holly, Boxwood, Lignumvitas (llexj, (Buxus, Cornus), (Guajacum). 

" 23. Persimmon, Osage Orange, Cherry (Piospyros), (Madura), (Primus). 

" 24. Teak, Greenheart (Tectona), (Nectandra). 

" 23. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). 

" 26. Pine (Pinus). 

" 27. Black Spruce (Picea nigra). 

" 28. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). 

" 29. Hemlock (Tsuga). 

" 30. Larch, Tamarack (Larix). 

" 3:. Cedar (Cedrus, Thuya, etc.). 

" 32. Cypress (Cupressus, Taxodium), 

' 33- Redwood (Sequoia). 

" 34- Endogenous Structure in Wood. 

" 35- Palm (Palmace^e). 

" 36. Yucca (Yuccal. 

" 3"- Bamboo (Bambusae). 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

NAMES AND LOCALITIES. 

" Check List of Forest Trees of the United States, their Names 
and Ranges," Sud worth. (U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 17.)* 

FEATURES OF TKEF.S, BOTANIES. 

Prof. Sargent's " Silva of North America"; Michaux and 
Nuttall's "North American Silva"; Apgars "Trees of Norlhon 
United States"; Publications U. S. Forestry Division; " Our Native 
Trees," Keeler; "Familiar Trees," Mathews; "Timber Trees and 
Forests of North Carolina," Pinchot & Ashe (N. C. Geological 
Survey Bulletin No. 6); " Report on Trees and Siirubs of Jlassa- 
chusetts," Emerson; "Manual of Botany," Gray; "Plants," 
Coulter; " Fllustrated Flora of U. S.," Britton and Brown; etc., etc. 
"Botanical Gazette;" "Guide to Trees and Shrubs of New England 
by tlieir Leaves," Briulley WhiddL-r, Jiu?ton : I'lot. Green's "Forestry 
in Minnesota;" Jiailey's "Cyclopedia American Horticulture; ' 
"Manual of Trees <>f North America," Sargent. Handbook of Trees 
0/ Xorthern United States, Hough. 

COLOR, APPEARANCE OR GRAIN OF WOOD. 

Jesup Collection at Museum of Katuriil History, Xew York City; 
Houghs •' American Woods" {sections). 

STRUCTURAL QUALITIES AND USES OF WOODS. 

'•Timier," Roth {Bulletin No. 10, U. S. Forestry Div.); Vol. IX, 
Tenth U. S. Census; Prof . Sargent's " Catalogue Jesup Collections" ; 
Prof. J. B. Johnson' s ^' Materials of Construction" ; Prof. Thurston's 
" Materials of Engineering," Part I; Dr. F. E. Kidder's " Inspection 
of Materials and Workmanship. " Allusions in numerous publica- 
tions U. S. Forestry Division; "Wood," Boulger (Arnold, London); 
"Timbers of Commerce," Stone (William Rider & Son, London). 
Manual of North American Gymnosperms Penhallow (Ginn & Co). 

* The names Division of Forestry, Bureau of Forestry and Forest Service, 
have been successfully used to denote this division of the United Slates De- 
partment of Agriculture. 



xvi BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

WEIGHTS AND MODVLI. 

Circular No. IS, U. S. Forestry Division; Prof. J. B. Johnson's 
"Materials of Construction"; Mr. S. P. Sharpless' Tables for the 
U. S. Census (Vol. IX, Tenth Census; also Executive Document 
No. 5, 48th Congress, ist Session, and also Sargetit's "Catalogue 
Jesup Collection"); Prof. Lanza's "Applied Mechanics." 

AMERICAN SPECIES. 

See foot-notes to species in question. 

FOREIGN SPECIES. 

Thos. Lazlelt's ' ' Timber and Timber Trees '' ; Report on Forests 
of Western Australia by J. Ednie Brown ; Catalogue Kew Botanical 
Gardens, London; Works Baron Ferd. von Mueller; "American 
Lumber in Foreign Markets" (Special Consular Reports, Vol. XI, 
U. S. State Dept.); Stevenson^ s ''Trees of Commerce"; also see 
foot-notes, species in question; Captain Ahem'i "Important Philip- 
pine Woods." 

GENERAL. 

" Forestry for Farmers," Fcrnow, and other U. S. Forestry 
Division Publications, \'ol. L\, Tenth U. S. Census; Hough's 
American Woods {text); The Forester; The Northwestern Lumber- 
man; The (New Orleans) Lumber Trade Journal; The New York 
Lumber Trade Journal; The Timber Trades Journal (London); 
" Lumber Trade of U. S. " (Bureau Statistics U. S. Treas. Dept.); 
Trees in Winter, Huntington. 

HISTORICAL. 

Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon ; etc. 

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES. 

U. S. Dispensatory. 

Books particularly useful to beginners are in italics. Names are 
repeated when books could not be particularly classed under one 
heading. Also see foot-notes under subjects in questions. 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 



INTRODUCTION. 

A KNOWLEDGE of the properties of the substances employed 
in construction causes confidence and permits smaller margins 
beyond calculated requirements than would otherwise be 
possible. 

Wood is one of the primary materials of construction; the 
others are stone and iron. These principal substances possess 
distinguishing peculiarities, and each one includes a series of 
individuals that are also distinguished from one another by 
reason of minor characteristics. Iron thus includes the steels 
and cast irons, while stone includes brick, concrete and other 
artificial products, as well as sandstones and granites that cccur 
in nature. 

Information relating to the general properties of wood is as 
desirable as information relating to properties of steel, stone or 
cement. Engineers use more wood than any other set of 
men, yet general facts aside from those relating to strength 
are often associated with the province of the botanist or 
forester. 

Wood is the solid part of trees, the part that, when other- 
wise suitable, is used in construction. It consists of a ground- 
work of starch-like substance known as cellulose* permeated 
by materials collectively known as lignin; there are also secre- 

* Fla.^ is almost pure cellulose. 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

lions as resins, coloring matter and water. The small proportion 
of mineral in wood is evident as ash.* 

When heated, wood first gives off about one quarter of its 
weight as water, after which the volatile, inflammable gases 
separate from a solid base of carbon which itself finally con- 
sumes with much heat but no flame and releases the residue 
of ash. 

Wood is preferred because it is easily worked and light in 
weight. In many positions it is as durable as iron. It is a 
poor conductor of heat and electricity, and is stronger than is 
generally supposed. The tensile strength of a bar of hickory 
may exceed the tensile strength of a similar bar of wrought iron 
of the same length and weight. j 

Wood is not homogeneous, like metal and most of the 
stones, but is more complicated and so variable that several 
portions of the same tree often exhibit widely different qualities. • 
. The consumption of wood has never decreased, although 
metals and stones have been substituted for it in many posi- 
tions. In England the per capita consumption more than 
doubled in the fifty years preceding (1895) in spite of the fact 
that nearly all of the wood used in that country had to be im- 
ported.! The total yearly mill value of wood products in the 
United States is now (1906) over nine times as great as its com- 
bined product of gold and silver, or twice as great as the value 
of its wheat crops. § 

* Wood, timber and lumber may not mean the same. Properly speaking all 
woody tissue is wood, but roots and branches contain much wood that is not 
.'uitable for construction. Wood that is suitable althouglt not necessarily ready 
for construction is timber, and wood that is not only suitable but ready for con- 
struction is lumber. 

The word timber may thus include living trees in the forest, as well as logs 
and shaped pieces, whereas lumber refers only to boards, planks, beams and 
other sawn pieces of limited sizes and then only in America. The term lumber, 
which is not sharply definable, is seldom used abroad. 

t Roth, 1896 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 392. 

J U. S. Forestry Bulletin No 10, p. 5. 

§ \ conservative estimate places the yearly mill value of wood products at 
$1,100,000,000. The spring and winter wheat crops of 1905 were together 
valued at $518,372,737. The production of gold and silver (1904) was valued 
at 8112,871.026. 



INTRODUCTION. J 

Nearly five hundred species of trees grow in the United 
States,* and there are others that are peculiar to other 
countries, yet the great mass of wood used in construction 
comes from but few of them. Dr. Sudworth excludes all but 
ICO species in his "Trees of the United States Important to 
Forestry," while a Treasury Department Summary f contains 
the statement that but sixteen kinds of hard wood were quoted 
in Chicago markets on the tirst of September in the year 
nineteen hundred. 

Woods appear to Ije more numerous than is actually the case, 
because several names are often r.pplied to a single product. 
Woods have been brought long distances because the same 
ones nearer by were not recognized when called by different 
local names. The longleaf or southern pine {Piniis paluslris) 
has about thirty common names. Such confusion can only be 
avoided by regarding the recognized botanical nomenclature. 

Conditions are changing; many woods that were formerly 
common are now quite scarce while others that have been less 
familiar must be employed. Information is increasing with 
regard to valuable properties possessed by species that have 
been less familiar. 

The botanical name of a plant consists of two principal 
terms denoting genus and s; ecies. Quercus, for example, is 
the generic name including ;,11 species of oak. Alba, rubra, 
ard others are specific names denoting the said species. 
Quercus alba and Quercus rubra are completed terms. Genera 
are not fixed but differ with authorities, so that the abbreviated 
name of the botanist responsible for the classification adopted 
is often added, as Quercus alba Linn, and Ulmus fulva Alich.x. 

A species is a collection of individuals that might well have 
sprung from some single root. A genus is a collection of related 
species. Genera are gathered into families. Families and genera 

* Dr. Fernow credits 495 species to the United States (Introduction to U. S. 
Forestry Bui. 17); Prof. Sargent counting species only and excluding varieties, 
notes 422 species (Silva of North America). 

t (1900, p. 1081). The statement is also made that the principal timbers of 
commerce in the United States are the species known popularly as pine, fir, oak, 
hickory, hemlock, ash, poplar, maple, cypress, spruce, cedar and walnut. 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

differ with authorities. A variety includes individuals differing 
slightly from accepted species. Its name when existing is part 
of the specific name. " Quercus robur var. pedunculata " 
specifies a variety {pedunculata) of "red " or strong (robur) 
oak (Quercus). A variety of one botanist is sometimes a dis- 
tinct species of another. 

Information relating to wood must include some information 
relating to the tree. 

A tree has been defined* as "a perennial plant which grows 
from the ground with a single, permanent, woody, self-support- 
ing trunk or stem ordinarily attaining a height at least twenty- 
five or thirty feet."' 

A tree has three principal parts or systems: they are the 
roots, the trunk, and the foliage. Roots and foliage are here 
regarded only as they are means by which wood is manufactured. 

The root system of a tree consists of large branch-roots that 
enable the tree to stand firmly in the ground and small hair-roots 
that emerge from the larger ones to gather moisture and chemi- 
cals from the soil. The small roots are very sensitive and are 
the primary portions of the system. The larger roots serve .is 
canals through which the fluids collected by the smaller ones 
travel upward toward the trunk and foliage. 

The foliage of a tree separates carbon from the air and 
prepares it to unite with the faintly mineralized water that 
arises from the roots. The preparation of sap is thus com- 
pleted by the foliage. The movement of fluids in a tree is a 
continuous movement. Up and down currents move together; 
the one in the inner sapwood and the other through the outer 
sapwood. Sap does not rise in the spring and fall in the 
autumn. 

The sap thus completed in the foliage descends through 
the outer sapwood and deposits a layer of mucilage-like sub- 
stance between the sapwood and the bark. This young 
substance or cambium is shortly quickened into life. Cells 
develop, some of which form a layer of new wood while others 

* Centurj' Dictionary. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

form bast or bark. This ring or layer method of growth does 
not apply with trees such as jjalms. 

Moisture is the most important element that the tree draws 
from the soil. Trees require comjjaratively little mineral 
matter and this is in large part returned when they shed iheir 
leaves in the autumn. Carbon is the principal food of trees 
and carbon is derived from the atmosphere. 

Leaves perform their functions through the instrumentality 
of chlorophyll, a substance upon which they depend for their 
color. The health of a tree depends upon that of its foliage, 
and the health of a tree can be told by the condition of its 
foliage. 

Trees need sunlight, and are influenced by the way in which 
they receive it. Sunlight reaches the sides of trees that stand 
by themselves and these trees produce many branches. The 
sides of trees that stand together in the forest are shaded and 
the lower branches of such trees do not thrive. The foliage of 
forest trees reaches upward toward the sunlight; their trunks 
are thus lengthened and wood is deposited upon the trunks 
rather than upon the branches. 

In this way it is possible to influence the shape of any tree. 
A full-branched irec such as is prized in landscape effects or a 
long straight trunk that is valued by lumbermen may be obtained 
by the required direction of sunlight. Lower branches die and 
fall away in forests, or they may be removed by pruning, and 
in either case wood diverted from the branches will concentrate 
upon the trunk. 

The energy of a young tree is largely expended upon the 
development of its roots and foliage. The trunk grows very 
slowly during this interval. It is particularly wasteful to cut 
down young trees and saplings just as wood is about to be 
diverted to the trunk.* 

Top-soil of forests is porous and loose. Roots break the 
originally compacted ground and leaves and twigs falling from 

* In Europe branches removed by pruning are used as firewood. These 
trimmings take the place of some better material that would otherwise be used 
for fuel. Practices are much more wasteful in America. 



INTRODUCTION. 



the trees protect it so that it remains soft. The mixture of 
leaves and loose top-soil forms what is known as humis. Humis 
receives and protects young seeds, and assists the small hair- 
roots which cannot so easily penetrate hardened soil. 

Humis also acts by equahzing the flow of streams. Rain 
rolls quickly from sun-baked or otherwise compacted soil, but 
humis permits the rain drops to pass through into the protected 
sponge below and then reduces evaporation from this sponge. 
It is not known that forests influence rain-fall but their value 
in regulating stream-flow is beyond estimate. 

Forestry includes the planting and management of forests 
and is agriculture as distinguished from lumbering. Forests are 
not destroyed for immediate profit but are maintained so as to 
secure recurring crops of matured and desirable trees. Appro- 
priate species are planted, humis is preserved, fire risks are les- 
sened and saplings are planted as the riper trees are cut down. 
Forestry calls for small profits but these continue from year to year, 
whereas the lumberman receives larger profits once and finally. 

The size and character of 
the trunk, and the range, local- 
ity, or distribution of the tree, 
have much to do with the 
utility of the wood, since large 
'0^^ C^i ffl J\ °'" perfect timbers cannot be 
derived from species character- 
ized by small or crooked trees, 
and since wood is always more 
used if it is widely distributed 
so as to be easily available.* 



Mi 



I 



Wood is made up of cell- 

FiG. I.— Some Wood Elements. structures; as, the true fibre, 

which originates from several 

cells; the tracheid (tra-ke-id), which originates from one; the 

vessel, which is a short, wide tube joined vertically end to end 



* Fossils show that many species 



L-red wider ranges than at present. 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

with others of its kind; the ])ith-ray; the rcsin-duct, and others, — 
all of which arc often popularly referred to as fibres. 

The character and the arrangement of cell-structures differ 
with species. Wood is hard, soft, light, heavy, tough, porous, 
elastic, or otherwise, because of these differences. Appearance 
is affected, and woods may be distinguished from one another, 
because of this fact. 

The character of wood not only depends upon the properties 
and the arrangement of the cell structures, but it also depends 
upon the characteristics and the (juantitics of substances asso- 
ciated with, although actually foreign to, the cell structures. 
Sap or pure water is thus within although not readily part of the 
wood tissue. Water distends and weakens cell structures which 
are then more pliable. 

Most wood is used in "construction," that is, in mines, 
railways, houses and shijw, where demand is for size or 
quantity, and where finish and appearance amount to but little. 
Much wood is used in decoration and furniture, where appear- 
ance, appropriateness, and finish arc called for; but these 
woods, although much in evidence, are infinitely less in quantity 
than those employed in construction. Some wood is required 
for implements, turnery, carvings and small-piece work, where 
size is secondary and where qualities such as hardness, fine 
grain, and uniformity, controllable in small pieces, are primary. 
Some wood is used indirectly, as in the manufacture of 
paper-pulp, gunpowder and chemicals. There are also by- 
products of trees, such as tanbark, turpentine, resin, nuts and 
sugar. 

The weight, strength, and other measurable properties of 
wood are variable. Weight varies from day to day as water 
is absorbed and evaporated. Strength differs with grain, age, 
moisture, specific gravity, and many other things. Two pieces 
from different portions of the same tree differ from each other. 
The proportions of sap and heart wood are seldom constant. 
Results from small specimens may differ from those obtained 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

from larger ones.* The botanical accuracy of a specimen is 
not always certain, therefore figures relating to the physical 
properties of wood should be employed with greater caution 
than those relating to the more homogeneous metals. 

Many of the experiments conducted to establish statements 
regarding the physical properties of wood have been defective 
in that while the conclusions were correct as applied to the 
specimens immediately studied, such specimens did not stand 
for the species at large. The recognition of difficulties, the 
selection of specimens, the scientific standardizing of methods 
so that results could be generally utilized, as distinct from the 
simple manipulation of specimens in testing-machines, have not 
been exhaustively attempted until recently. f 

The tests that have been made to obtain measures for woods 
may be arranged in several groups, each one depending upon the 
way in which test pieces were selected. The groups are as 
follows : 

(i) Professors Fernow and Johnson acknowledged the diffi- 
culties that have been noted in a series of experiments conducted 
for the United States Division of Forestry. The details con- 
sidered and the methods evolved during this study were of such 
nature as to influence all subsccjuent cft'orts. These figures are 
believed by many to be the most satisfactory in existence. The 
study is disappointing in that results were obtained for so few 
species. Some of these are of commercially secondary im- 
portance. 

(2) Experiments were conducted for the Tcnlh United 
States Census by ]Mr. J. P. Sharpie s at the Watcrtown 
Massachusetts Arsenal. It is certain that the si)ccimcns were 
of the exact species credited because they were selected in this 
respect by Professor Sargent, but in other ways selections were 
not guided by factors that would now be considered. The 

* Only because imperfections are moie likely in larger pieces. Large and 
small pieces of equally perfect wood are equally strong. (See Publications U. S. 
Forestry Div. and J. B. Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 462.) 

t It should be noted that the selection and preparation of specimens require 
the e.xercise of more judgment than the simple testing of specimens, if the con- 
clusions are to be such that they can be generalized from. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

series is valuable because it includes almost all American species 
and tlie results are the ones that are cjuotcd in several text 
books. 

(3) Some experimenters believe that practical figures may 
be obtained by testing large or life-sized pieces such as are 
actually used in construction. Professor Lanza is an advocate 
of this basis, which has also influenced experiments more 
recently inaugurated by the National Forest Service under 
Professor William Kendrick Hatt. 

(4) The later series of investigations inaugurated l)y the 
National Forest Service and to which allusion was made in the 
preceding article is characterized by the fact that much attention 
is also paid to mechanical properties other than strength. This 
study includes investigations of physical properties such as 
shrinkage, and it also includes technological processes such as 
kiln drying, the application of preservatives, and the application 
of fire retardanls; some of these matters are considered as they 
influence strength. This investigation is in charge of Professor 
William Kendrick Hatt. 

(5) All other experiments are in this group. Many experi- 
ments have been made from time to time which are not 
characterized by any particular method or principal such as 
separate the investigations that are noted in the preceding 
articles. Details as to selection are incompletely given or are 
absolutely lacking, and the results differ very widely from one 
another. Such studies arc referred to as are noted in the works 
of Hatfield, Lazlett, Rankine, Thurston, and many others. So 
far as is known some of these experimenters simply " broke 
specimens." Some series within this group are valuable in that 
they enable comparisons. Professor Rankine and Mr. Lazlett 
experimented principally upon foreign woods. 

The figures established by the United States Bureau of 
Forestry and alluded to in item i, page i, appear, so far as 
they exist, upon the following pages. Where they do not 
exist, the leading spaces set apart for them are left vacant for 
other insertions as preferred. 

The coefficients appearing in this hook are, then, 



lO INTRODUCTION 

First. Those resulting jrom the U'^hed Siau^ Furaliy 
Bureau Experiments noted in the prc^'-ding article and which, 
so far as they exist, occupy the leading spaces directly under 
the titles. 

Second. Those conducted at the Water town Arsenal by Mr. 
Sharpless for the tenth United Stales census and mentioned in 
item 2, pages 8 and 9. These appear in the second spaces, 
that is, in lines immediately following those occupied by or set 
apart for the Forestry figures or their equivalents. 

All coefficients are in pounds per square inch; fractions of 
pounds in weight and lower figures in coefficients have been 
omitted as superfluous. 

It is not always easy to determine the species of living 
trees, because forms in the forest differ from those in the open, 
because bark varies with age, and because fruit and leaves of 
many trees are lacking in the winter. It is easier to tell 
genus than species — tliat a tree is an oak, than whether it is a 
red or a pin oak. Experience is required in this connection. 

It is also hard to identify many woods. Colors and appear- 
ances vary and are hard to describe. Artisans become familiar 
with a few kinds of woods, but they are usually uncertain with 
regard to others. The key suggested by Professors Fernow 
and Roth (Bulletin 10, U. S. Forestry Bureau, pages 59-83), 
should be referred to. The section:; prepared by Hough are 
very valuable. The Jcsup Collection is available to those 
living near New York City. 

Trees are divided according to the manner in which new 
material is added to the section. This is sometimes on the 
outside of older growth and next to the bark or else it is inside 
distributed over the section. Woods are correspondingly dis- 
similar, and the two general divisions into which trees are thus 
separated are known as Exogens and Endogens.* 

* This division coincides with that by which they are separated into Dicotyle- 
dons and Monocotyledons. It applies to all higher organized plants. 



PLATE 2. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD, 
Yearly Rings or Layers. 




A section el a l.^.i,-!. .il I'iuL- Tree. 






^"^* •*•"■*»• -y«,-.., 



:_4vr,.iii'-ia"'- 



;■>**" 



^S^^^^'^^^ii^^^; 












A section of Oak showing "porous" slrutturc in yemly layers. (Natur.il size.) 



A section ol lUiJ I'uie sUuwing •soli.!' slructuie in layers. (Natural size.) 




EXOGENOUS TREES. 

{Du-otyh-i/oiis.) 

Exogenous trees are those the trunks of wliicli are built 
up by rings or layers, each deposited consecutively upon the 
outside of the others. A section exhibits first a central point 
or canal known as a pith-cavity, next and consecutively the 
annual layers, and finally the bark. The 
woods of this series are familiar to all. The 
oaks, pines, and practically all of the mer- 
chantable lumbers are among them. The 
forests are widely distributed, and the species 
are so numerous as to present an almost 
infinite range of possibilities. Fig. 2. — Section Box- 

These trees grow in two ways, " length ^i'^'f ' T^'r^.^f.?" 
° J ' o CAVITY AT Centre. 

growth" being distinct from "thickness (Enlarged.) 
growth." Trees thicken, as stated, by reason of new material 
deposited upon the cross-section and lengthen by a sort of 
telescopic extension at buds or extremities. These last, once 
extended, later thicken, so as in turn to become trunks or 
boughs. A nail driven at a certain distance from the ground 
is never higher. 

Central pith cavities, as they exist in exogenous trees are 
most pronounced in younger growth, saplings and small 
branches. They are later absorbed or compressed and arc 
seldom directly evident in the sections of mature trunks. 

The young w'ood of exogenous trees is porous. It permits 
the passage of sap and is known as sapwood (Alburnum). As 
a layer is enclosed by others and retreats from the surface of 



12 EXOGENOUS TREES. 

the tree, it l:)Ccomes denser, its canals are filled with gums or 
tannin, color changes, and the result is heartwood (Duramen). 
This change goes forward rapidly in some trees, such as locusts, 
so that their sections appear to be almost wholly heartwood; 
other species require longer time, and sapwood then predomi- 
nates. 

Professor von Schrenk believes that sapwood changes to 
heartwood suddenly; that the change docs not take place in 
one ring every year, but that it frequently skips many years, so 
that eight, ten or even more rings may change from sapwood to 
heartwood in one year. He also calls attention to the fact that 
one side of the tree may change before the other, and that part 
of a ring may be heartwood while the rest remains sapwood.* 

Heartwood gives stabihty to the tree, but is not needed in 
its physiological processes. It is tougher, heavier, stronger, 
and more valued in construction. Sapwood is vitally essen- 
tial to the life of the tree, but is lighter, weaker, less durable, 
and less valued in construction. Sapwood is pliable, and the 
sapwoods of several trees are valued for this reason. 

Wood-making varies as it takes place in the springtime 
and in the summer. Consequent differences in the densities 
of the deposits serve to mark the limits of the yearly rings. 
Some species, as the oaks and hickories, show pores through- 
out their spring woods which thus contrast with denser summer 
growths. Others, as Southern pines, change sharply, and 
their spring and summer growths appear as solid bands. In 
even climates, where seasons are not pronounced, growth is 
more regular and layers correspondingly less definite.! 

The cellular structure of wood is principally vertical, a fact 
that explains the ease with which wood is split up and down. 
Beside the vertical, there are horizontal cells, that cross the 
tiee, strengthen and bind the vertical cells, and assist in the 
life-processes of the tree. These horizontal cells form what 
are known as medullary or pith-rays and appear as simple 

* U. S. Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 14, p. 15. 
t Circular No. 16, U. S. Forestry Division. 



PLATE 3. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. 
Medullary or Pith Ray. 




illliS'JiiBiliiiiBii.H, ■"'*'l 



i; illlil 1! »'(<! ,'! .';.);. 



ActunI apiK-anuiCfs (.f pitli ray, PP. 



\\: 



'■^ 




Micriiscopic enlargi 



showing largr pith ray, pp. 



THE I'RINCll'AL SI'EUtiS OF IVOOD. 13 

lines or glistening plates according to the way in which the 
wood is cut. Woods differ in the size antl number of these rays, 
which are by no means always visible to the eye (see plate 3). 
Woods are easy or difficult to work in proportion as their 
fibres arc arranged in a simple or a complicated manner. This 
is shown in the figures on plate 4. A knife pressed upon 
the oak must crush or cut into the fibres themselves, whereas 
with the pine it finds some natural passage between the cells. 
Wood may be cut so as to develop cioss-sections (C, Fig. 3), 
radial sections (7?), or tangential sections {T). The respect- 




ive markings are in a general way indicated un the boards in 
the llgure. 

Logs are sometimes sawn into quarters and then into pieces 

crossing and exposing the nearly rings. (See Fig. 4.) These 

"quarter-sawn" surfaces are structurally stronger and better, 

but are, ly reason of waste or small pieces, more 

J^^ costly than others. The pith-rays of some woods, 
___^^^ such as oaks, are very prominent when split as they 
^^^/ are in "quarter-sawing," and the appearance of 
Fig. 4. s'^'ch woods is Consequently improved.* "Vertical 
grained," 'straight grained," "edge grained," "rift 
grained" and "quartered woods " arc names that mean the 

* Some woods, as birdscye maple, are well developed by the rotary cut. 
A revolving li)g is advanced against a tool which pares a broad thin ribbon suit- 
able for veneered work. 



14 EXOGENOUS TREES. 

same thing whenever the names are applied to manufactured 
woods. 

Planks and boards, with the exception of those that are 
intended for flooring, decoration or special purposes, are cut 
parallel to the diameters of the logs and when thus developed 
are referred to as "bastard," "slash" and "slice-cut" boards. 

Boards cut from logs that have not been squared show parts 
of the outside surfaces of the logs. The uneven appearance 
caused in this way is known as " wane." These uneven and 
slanting strips, removed when the boards are cut to standard 
widths, are known as " edging." 

Logs are often squared before they are sliced, and the 
segments of bark and sapwood that are then separated from 
the logs are known as " slabs." Edging and slabs are worked 
into laths or are burned as fuel. 

Vertical separations are often seen in trunks, and when 
caused by winds or frosts they are known as "windshakes" 
and "frostshakes." Yearly rings or layers sometimes separate 
from one another when the terra " cupshakes " is employed 
and the pieces in which the defects occur are known as "rolled 
lumber" because it is inferred that the separations were caused 
when the winds rolled the trees to and fro. The bends that 
are sometimes seen in the lengths of beams or ties are known as 
" waves." 

The short but sometimes deep cracks that appear in planks, 
and that are due to drying or seasoning, are known as " checks." 
Wood is sometimes lifeless and brittle as the result of age or 
disease, and such wood is called "brashwood." 

There are many names that refer to practically the same 
cause of disintegration in wood. "Wet rot," "dry rot," disease, 
decay, bluing, rust, mildew, canker, soft rot, bot, dote and 
other terms are thus employed. The results indicated by these 
names are, regardless of environment and of peculiarities of 
wreckage, due primarily to the presence of bacteria or fungi. 
These cannot act when wood is saturated with water, or when 
it is entirely dry, or when it has been subjected to certain 
chemicals. 



PLATE 4. r,X(ir.E\OUS STRUCTURE IX WOOD. 
(CROSS-SKCTIONS, ENLARGKD.) 








Two yearly layers.. r win u- Oak. ThelargLi , ... .i.j;. llie 

S'lialler ones in summer. The small circles are ends of hbres. A knite pressed 
vipon tins surface would crush or cut into the cells. The mass would not split or 
separate evenly. 




Two yearly lay. rs ..fWliito Pine. Tlie -pan- in the ..uter ..r d.irker one is a 
resin-duct; the circles are ends of fibres (tracheids); pith rays are noticeable. A 
kniffe pressed upon this surface would find easy passage. The mass would separate 
easily. 



Tim PRINCll'AL Sl'ECIES OF IVOOD. 15 

Knots arc the rmiIi of branches. Br.ds conncclcd witli 
" pilh cavities " appear upon the bark and ultimately develop 
into branches. There arc corresponding disturbances between 
the bark and pith that arc known as knots. It is needless to 
say that such disturbances may be prevented by the early 
removal of the Ijuds. 

Lumber is now described or jjurchased upon the basis of 
some one of the several series of rules that have been prepared 
with reference to defects, dimensions and the general inspection 
of lumber. Such standards have been adopted or published by 
the Hardwood Manufacturers' Association of the United States, 
the Pacific Coast Lumber Manufacturers' Association, the 
Yellow I^ine Manufacturers' Association and others.* 

Exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and 
needle-leaved conifers. The broad, flat leaves of trees such 
as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term, while the 
narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to 
the latter. The woods of the former group are usually referred 
ti) as hard woods, although some of them are ver}- soft; those 
of the latter group are referred to as soft woods, although some 
of them are very hard. Most, but not all, of the broadleaf 
trees are deciduous, that is, they change their foliage every 
}'car; and most, but not all, of the needleleaf trees are ever- 
green, that is, the foliage is persistent. Needleleaf trees are 
also known as conifers, that is, cone-bearers. 

It is usual to associate the terms broadleaf, deciduous, and 
hard wood ; and likewise the terms needleleaf, conifer, ever- 
green, and soft wood. While generally correct, this is, as 
seen, not always so. A better division is into broadleaf trees 
or woods, and needleleaf conifers. 

* Copies of these rules may be obtained from the secretaries of the several 
associations. The principal series have recently been published under one cover 
as " Forest Service Bulletin No. 71 " — Hodson. This Bulletin is called " Rules 
and Specifications for the Grading of Lumber, Adopted by the Various Lumber 
Manufacturing .Associations of the United States." Also see Trans. American 
Soc. for Testing Materials. 



BROADLEAF WOODS. 

The trees affording these woods are found in natural 
forests and under cultivation in nearly every portion of the 
globe. The histories of some of them extend back to very 
remote periods. Their woods were the principal ones in con- 
struction in many districts. The oaks, elms, maples, and 
many other so-called hard woods are of this group. 

Broadleaf woods are characterized by complex fibre condi- 
tions, absence of resins, and greater weights.* They are 
composed of several kinds of cells and fibres, arranged without 
the regularity so noticeable in the conifers. Cross-sections 
exhibit numerous, often easily yisible pores, arranged in zones 
or scattered throughout the rings (see plate 2). Pith-rays are 
numerous and more or less conspicuous, save in softer hard 
woods such as poplar. Woods are difficult to work in propor- 
tion as they are complicated in structure. The numerous 
members of the group vary from one another and present an 
extensive range of properties. Although there are exceptions, 
as the eucalyptus and tulip trees, individuals of this class are 
not commonly depended upon for the large straight pieces 
associated with the pines, spruces, firs, and redwoods. Many 
of the broadleaf woods are used in "construction," but the 
demand for this purpose is much less than that met by the 
needleleaf series. Woods for cabinet purposes, implements, 
and other fine needs are derived from the broadleaf group. 

The leaves of broadleaf trees are easily distinguished from 
the resinous, usually evergreen ones of the conifers. Most of 
them are deciduous, that is, shed every season, although some 
are persistent, that is, "evergreen." "Broadleaf," "decidu- 
ous," and "hardwood " trees are the same. 

* Neither resin-ducts nor resin exists in these woods, save sometimes in buds 
and leaves. 



PLATE 5. WHITE OAK {Qiiercus aiba). 




OAK. 

(Quenus.) 

The oaks are found on all of the continents of the northern 
hemisphere, as well as at high altitudes just south of the 
equator. Their woods stand pre-eminent among- those of the 
broadleaf series and have been highly prized from early 
periods. Formerly relied upon for all purposes of house and 
naval architecture, the}- did not give way to the so-called 
"soft woods " for houses, and to iron for vessels, until com- 
paratively recent periods. Thc\' were supplanted for the 
former purposes upon the opening of the soft-wood forests of 
North America and of the Baltic, and for vessels subsequent 
to the conclusions of the American Civil War. 

The historical importance of oak is founded upon the repu- 
tation of the English Oak as derived from two trees, Ouercus 
robur var. pedunculata and Quercus robur var. sessiliflora, 
usually taken as sub-species of Quercus robur.* It is said that 
these trees once formed large forests over Northern and 
Central Europe. Live-oak has always been highly esteemed, 
but is now very scarce. It is one of the hardest, heaviest, 
and most durable of constructive woods and was once largely 
employed in ship-building. The wood of the White Oak 
{Quercus alhn) is at present preferred for most purposes for 
which oak is now employed, and is one of the most valuable 
of the American hard woods. 

Oak is tough, durable, easily obtained, liable to warp and 
check in seasoning, often hard to nail without splitting, sus- 
ceptible of high polish, and not greatly liable to attack by 
insects. It contains gallic acid, causing peculiar taste and odor 
and attacking iron, the solutions staining the wood. Experi- 
ments t indicate that iron fastenings are shortly protected by 
an insoluble scale of resulting salt, and that the wood, although 

* Thought by some botanists to be distinct species, namely. Quercus pedun- 
culata and Quercus sessiliflora. 

f Havemeyer Chemical Laboratory, N. Y. University. See foot-note, p. 32. 

17 



i8 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



darkened, remains practical!}' uninjured. The later oaken 
vessels were iron-fastened,* and cabinet-makers now employ 
that metal in joining oak. The barks of all species are also 
so charged with acid as to be used in the tanning of leather. 
The several kinds of oak are commercially divisible into 
three general groups, white oak, red or black oak, and live 
oak.-f The principal species affording woods under each head 
are as follows: 



White Oak. Red or Black Oak. 

White Oak (Q. alba). Red Oak iQ. rubra). 

Cow Oak (Q. micliauxii). Pin Oak (Q. palustris). 

Chestnut Oak (Q. prinus). Spanish Oak (Q. digitata). 

Post Oak (O. minor). Ycdlow or Black Oak 

Bur Oak (Q. macrocarpai. ly. velutina). 
Pacific Post Oak (Q. gar- 
ryanna). 



Live Oak. 
Live Oak (Q. virginiana). 
California Live Oak (Q. 

agri folia). 
Live Oak (Q. chrysolepis). 




Oak trees are char- 
acterized by oblong, 
thin-shelled kernels, 
protruding from hard 
scaly cups and called 
acorns. The foliage is 







White Oak Red Oak 

[Quercns aiba). (Qu,>ius riibru.) 

sometimes deciduous and sometimes 
evergreen. Most oaks require many 
years to reach maturity, but are then 
long-lived. Fifty of the nearly three 
hundred known species of oak are na- 
tives of the United States and Canada ; 

11 u^ru t jr LI l^K^-OAKlQu^-rcusvirginiana) 

all but lour become trees under favorable ^ 

conditions. Quercus is from two Celtic words, qncr, signifying 

fine, and ciic.v, a tree. 

* Communication. Mr. Chas. H. Cramp, President Cramp Ship-building Co., 
Philadelphia. 

f This division is also a botanical one based not only on differences in anatom- 
ical structure of the wood itself, but on the time required by fruit in attaining 
maturity, and on persistence of foliage (evergreen or deciduous), etc. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES -BROADLEAF IVOODS. 19 

White Oak. Quercus alba Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

White Oak (general). Stave Oak (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Widespread, north-central and eastern United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height. Three to six feet in 
diameter, fine shape and appearance. Grayish-white bark. 
Comparatively sweet ovoid oblong acorns in rough shallow 
cups. Rounded lobes or projections to leaves. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood brown with sapwoid lighter, .\nnual layers well 

marked. 
Medullary rays broad and prominent. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Tough, strong, heavy, hard, liable to check unless seasoned 
with care. Durable in contact with the soil. Receives a 
high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, construction, cooperage, cabinet-making, rail- 
way ties, fuel, etc. Bark is rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
50 (U. S. Forestry Div. ),* 
46. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,090,000 (average of 218 tests by U. S, Forestry Div.).* 
1,380,000, 

Modulus of Rupture. 

13, 100 (average of 218 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,800. 

Remarks. 

A tree of the first economic importance. The most widely 
employed of all American oaks. Name refers to appearance 
of bark. The supply diminishing because of value of timber, 
also the sweetness of nuts causes them to be eaten by animals. 
Oaks warp and check easily because of their complicated fiber 
arrangements. Some cell-structures dry faster than others. 
Oaks stand well after having once been seasoned; there is 
then little further distortion. 

* See page S. 



20 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cow Oak. Quercus michau.xii Nutt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cow Oak (local and common Swamp White Oak (Del., 

name). Ala.). 

Basket Oak (Ala., Miss., La., Swamp Chestnut Oak (Fla.). 

Tex., Ark.). 

Locality. 

Southeastern United States, Delaware and Florida, westward 
along Gulf to Te.xas. Also southern Indiana and Ilhnois to 
Gulf. Be.st on rich bottoms in Arkansas and Louisiana. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height. Three to six feet in 
diameter, rough, light-gray bark with loose scaly ridges. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood liglit brown, light buff sapwood,, conspicuous 
medullary rays, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, very strong, tough, durable, easily split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
46 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

50. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,610,000 (average of 256 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,370,000. 

IModulus of Rupture. 

1 1,500 (average of 256 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
15,800. 

Remarks. 

The principal white oak of Southern States; edible acorns 
devo'ared by cattle, whence its name. 



* See page 8. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 21 

Chestnut Oak. Quercus prinus Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Siulworth. ) 

Chestnut Oak (local and com- Tanbark Oak (N. C). 

men name). Swamp Chestnut Oak (N. C). 

Rock Oak (N. Y., Del., Pa.). Mountain Oak (Ala.). 

Rock Chestnut Oak (Mass., 
K. 1., Pa., Del., Ala.). 

Locality. 

Maine to Georgia, westward intermittently to Kentucky and 
Alabama. Best development in southern Alleghany Mountain 
region. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to eighty feet in height, three or four feet in 
diameter. Leaves resemble those of chestnut. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, snpwood lighter, close-grained, medullary 
rays conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, tough, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for railway ties. Bark rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,780,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,600. 

Remarks. 

Prinus is a Greek name applied to a species of oak. 



Post Oak. 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF tVOOD. 

j Quercus minor Sargent, 
[ Quercus obtusiloba Michx. 



Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Post Oak (local and common Overcup Oak (Fla.). 

'name). White Oak (Ky., Ind.). 

Iron Oak (Del., Miss., Neb.). Box Oak (Md.). 

Box White Oak (R. I.). Brash Oak (Md.). 
Chene 6toile (Quebec). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky Mountains — Massachusetts to northern Florida, 
westward intermittently to Nebraska and Gulf States. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Low shrub in Florida. Blunt lobes or projections to leaves. 
Leaves clustered at ends of branches. Fine tree with rounded 
top. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light or dark brown with lighter sapwood. Close- 
grained, annual rings well marked. Numerous and con- 
spicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in dr\ing. Durable in con- 
tact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used, particularly in Southwest, for fencing, railway ties, 
and fuel; also for cooperage, construction, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

50 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

52- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,030,000 (average of 49 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1, 180,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

12,300 (average of 49 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,900. 

Remarks. 

Most common and widely distributed oak in Gulf States west of 
the Mississippi River. Obtusiloba, the Latin for blunt-lobed, 
refers to the shapes of the leaves. Wood seldom commercially 
distinguished from white oak. 

* .See page 8. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES -BROADI.E/lh- IVOODS. 27, 

Bur Oak. Queraa macrocarpu .Mi< h.\. 

Nomenclature. (Siidworth. ) 

Bur Oak (local and common Mossycup Oak (Mass., Pa., 

name). Del., Miss., La., 'J'ex., Ark., 

Overcup Oak (R. I., Del., Pa., 111., Iowa, Neb., Kan.). 

■ Miss., La., 111., Minn.). Scrub Oak (Neb., Minn.). 

Mossycup White Oak (Minn.). Ovcrcup White Oak (Vt.). 
Locality. 

New Brunswick, New England, westward intermittently to 
Montana and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and thirty feet in height, five to seven 
feet in diameter. Deep opposite depressions to leaves. 
Mossy, fringed border at top of acorn-cup. Corky wing.s on 
young branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, broad 
conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, tough, very durable in contact with 
ground. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Similar to those of Quercus alba. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46.00. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,320,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,900. 

Remarks. 

Extends farthest west and northwest of any other P'astern oak. 
Especially recommended for prairie planting. 



24 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Oak. Quercus gar ry ana Douglas. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Oak (Cal., Oreg.). Oregon White Oak (Cal.). 
Pacific Post Oak (Oreg.). California Post Oak. 

Western W'lnte Oak (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, British Columbia into California. 

Features of Tree. 

Si.xty to ninety feet high, one and one half to two and one half 
feet in diameter. A small shrub at high elevations. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or yellow. Sapwood lighter, often 
nearly white. Compact structure. Distinctly marked annual 
rings. Medullary rays often conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, strong, hard, tough. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, carriages, furniture, indoor decoration, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 1 50,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

Locally important. The best substitute for Eastern White Oak 
produced on Pacific coast. 



The Weeping, \'allev, Swamp, White or California Wiite Oak 
{Quercus loblata), a native of central western California, is one of 
the largest and most symmetrical of all oaks. It adds to landscapes 
where it grows as elms add to the landscapes in the East. The 
brittle wood is seldom used in construction, but is an important local 
fuel. 



EXOGENOUS SERlES^BRO/inLEAF IVOODS. 25 

Red Oak. Qucrcus rubra Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Red Oak (local and common name). 

Black Oak (Vt., Conn., N. Y., Wis., la., Neb., So. Dak. 

Ont. ). 
Spanish Oak (Pa., N. C. ). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky Mountains, Nova Scotia to Georgia, westward 
intermittently to Nebraska and Kansas, best in Massachusetts. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height. Three to si.x feet and 
over in diameter, brownish-gray bark smooth on branches. 
Leaves have sharp-pointed lobes, very large acorns in flat 
shallow cups. A fine complete tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, 
well-marked annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. 

Structural Qualities of wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, inclined to check in drying, acid, inferior 
to white oak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Works of secondary importance, clapboards, cooperage, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
45 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,970,000 (average of 57 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

11,400 (average of 57 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,000. 

Remarks. 

Grows more rapidly than other oaks. Bark used in tanning. 



* See page 8. 



26 THE PRINCIP/tL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Pin Oak. Quercus paluslris Muenchh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pin Oak (local and common Water Oak (R. I., 111.). 

name). Swamp Oak (Pa., Ohio, 

Swamp Spanish Oak (Ark., Kans.). 

Kan.). Water Spanish Oak (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota to Kansas, eastward intermittently to Massachusetts 
and Virginia. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. 
Full-rounded or pyramidal top, smooth thin bark, numerous 
small pin-like branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood variegated light brown, sapwood nearly white, 
coarse-grained, medullary rays numerous and conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shingles, clapboards, construction, interior finish, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,500,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,400. 

Remarks. 

Palustris, the Latin for swampy, refers to favorite location of 
tree. The numerous slender secondary branches suggesting 
Dins cause tree to be easily recognized, particularly in winter. 



EXOGENOUS SERIHS-liROADl.E/1F IVOODS. 27 

Spanish Oak * Q"^'''^"^ digilata Sudworth, 

' ' ( Quercus falcata Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli.) 

Spanish Oak (local and common name). 

Red Oak (N. f., Va., (ia., Fla., Ala., Wi.s., La., Ind.). 

Spanish Oak (La.). 

Locality. 

New Jersey and Florida, westward intermittently to Illinois and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to seventy feet in height, two and one half to four feet in 
diameter. Variable foliage. Globular to oblong acorns. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light red, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, annual 
layers strongly marked, medullary rays few but conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, strong, not durable, checks badly in drying. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Somewhat used for cooperage, construction, etc. Bark very 
rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
IModuIus of Elasticity. 

1,900,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,900. 

Remarks. 

Dry barren soils. Grows rapidly. 



28 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

■nt 1 ,-v 1 Tr ,1 /^ 1 \ Oiiercus vehilina Lam. 
Black Oak, Yellow Oak. ;, ,■ i n r 

Nomenclature. (Siidworth.) 

Black Oak, Yellow Oak (local Tanbark Oak (111.), 

and common names). .Spotted Oak (Mo.). 

Yellow Bark, Yellow-bark Oak Quercitron Oak (Del., S. C, 

(R. I., Minn.). La., Kans., Minn.). 

Dyer's Oak (Tex.). 

Locality. 

East of longitude 96 degrees, Maine and ?'lorida, westward 
intermittently to Minnesota and Texas. Best in North 
Atlantic States. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and thirty feet in height, three to five 
feet in diameter. Dark gray to black bark, yellow inner 
bark. Acorns have bitter yellow kernels. Foliage turns hand- 
somely in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, coarse grain, 
annual layers strongly marked, thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood 

Heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in drying, not tough. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cooperage, construction, furniture, and decoration. 

Weight of Seasoned Mood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

44. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,740,000 (average of 40 tests by L^. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,470,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,800 (average of 40 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,800. 

Remarks. 

Yellow inner bark affords vellow dve. 



' See page S. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 29 

Live Oak ^ Quercus Ttrginiana Alill. 

I Querela virens Ait. 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth.) 

Live Oak (Va., N. C, S. C, Cheiie Vert (La.), 

('.a., Fla., Miss., Ala., 
Tex., La., Calif.). 

Local it)'. 

Southern States — coast from Virginia to Florida, westward to 
Texas and Lower California, southern Mexico, Central 
America, and Cuba. Best in south Atlantic States. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to sixty feet high, diameter three to six feet. General 
resemblance to apple-tree. Evergreen foliage. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or vellow, sapwood nearly white, 
close-grained, compact structure, pronounced medullary ray, 
annual layers often hardly distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, strong, tough, hard, diflicult to work, splits easily. 
Receives high polish, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Ship-building. 

^^■eight of Seasoned A\'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39- 
Modulus of Elasticity, 

1,600,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 
Remarks. 

Trunk and branches furnish small straight pieces, but principally 
knees, crooked or compass timbers. Virens refers to ever- 
green foliage. Splits so easily that it is better fastened with 
bolts or trenails than spikes. Now scarce, grows rapidly. 



30 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 

California Live Oak. Quercus agrifoUa Kee. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Coast Live Oak (CaL). Encena (Cal.). 

California Live Oak (Cal.). Evergreen Oak (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy-five and occasionally more feet in height, 
three to six feet in diameter. Evergreen foliage, leaves 
spiked like those of holly. Shape resembles that of apple tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood creamy white, but darkens on exposure. Compact 
structure, annual layers hardly distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, but brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

51- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,200. 

Remarks. 

Agrifolia is from the Latin acer, sharp, ?iX\A/ohum, leaf, allud- 
ing to the spinous toothed leaves. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLE,4F ^VOODS. 31 

Live Oak. Qucrcus chrysolepis Liebm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Live Oak (Cal., Oref,^). Canyon Oak, Iron Oak, Maul 

Canyon Live Oak, Hla( k Live Oak, Valparaiso Oak (Cal.). 

Oak, Golden-cup Oak 
(Cal.). 

Locality. 

West of Rocky Mountains, canyon.s, and high elevations. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, three to si.x feet in diameter. 
Often low shrub. Impressive appearance. Evergreen foliage. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, small pores in wide 
bands parallel to conspicuous medullary rays. Close-grained. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, strong, tough, difficult to work. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Implements, wagons, tool-handles. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

52. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1 , 700, 000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 8, 000. 
Remarks. 
Said to be the most valuable of the California oaks. Grows at 
elevations of 2000 to 5000 feet. Highland Oak {Quercus wis- 
hzeni ) IS an evergreen and a Pacific Coast variety. 



32 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

English O^k. Queicus robur var. pedunculata. 

Nomenclature. 

English Oak. British Oak. Common Oak. 

Locality. 

Widespread throughout northern and central Europe. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in 
diameter. Crooked branches, stalkless leaves, long-stalked 
acorns. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, darker spots frequent, sapwood 
lighter. Compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, tough, strong, durable, diflicult to work, liable to warp 
in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, beams, cabinet-work, formerl}' carpentry. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
51 (Laslett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,170,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 
10,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The English, Chestnut, Durmast, or Red Oak, Q. robur var. 
sessiliflora, distinguished by long leaf stalks and short acorn 
stalks, affords practically similar but lower-rated wood. The two 
varieties supply the British Oak of commerce. Dantzic, Rigi, 
and some other European oaks take names from port of ship- 
ment. Rubrus is red, but robur is a noun meaning strength; 
the adjective robustus means " oaken " or vigorous. Durmast 
Oak, which is the Quertus pubescens of some botanists, is less 
common than Quercus var. pedunculata. The two woods are 
often confused. Laslett states that it is difficult to distinguish 
one wood from the other without tracing logs back to original 
sources. Early writers advised against the use of iron fasten- 
ings with oak, but woods are now better seasoned, and, as 
stated (see page 17), later practise does not support this view, 
at least as applied to .'\merican woods.* 

* To determine the effect of gallic acid on iron : Five grams of clean iron wire 
were immersed in a five per cent, solution of gallic acid. In nine days the weight 
was 4,720 grams and the solution intensely black. Thirteen days later the same 
specimen weighed 4.7453. This indicated the formation of a crust weighing more 
than the original iron and probably protecting it to some extent. 



PLATE 0. WHITE ASH i^l-raxi,ius amtyicand). 





ASH. 

{Fraxiiius.) 

Ash is widely distributed over the temperate regions of the 
northern liemisphere, and occurs in the tropics, on the island 
of Cuba. The tree has occupied a position second only to 
that of oak. Our Teutonic forefathers relied upon its wood for 
boats and weapons. Their ancient 
faith connects it with the creation of 
the original man. It is often asso- 
ciated with oak in country proverbs.* 
Europeans regard the trees for or- 
namental purposes, but Americans 
value them for wood. ■Hfe^~^^h>r 

Ash and oak woods resemble one ^^ '^'"^'lA.^'''^ 

another in that there are bands of ^ 

open pores in both woods, but the 
pith-rays of the ash arc thinner and 
scarcely discernible . Ash is coarser, 

1,,.^.. .. . ^ , , White A^u I Fmn'nri! 

less attractive, easier to work, tough, am^ru-a,!,?). 

elastic, and somewhat lighter than oak. It seasons well, but 
does not last when exposed to the weather. Lumbermen sep- 
arate the woods into white and black ash, the former including 
the lighter-colored and more desirable pieces. This commer- 
cial division is also a botanical one in the North, where the 
only species of an)- note are the white ash and black ash 
{F. amcricana and F. nigra). The Southern green ash {F. 
lanaolata) is usually classed as white ash. The trees that grow 
up after the cutting of the virgin forest afford tougher, more 
pliable, but not necessarily stronger pieces, knowm as "second- 
growth ' ' ash. Although not relied upon for out-of-door con- 
struction, ash is one of the most important of the cheaper 
cabinet woods and is used in stairs, furniture, and similar works. 

* A traaition. ol.l in Pliny's time, is that serpents avoid ash trees; another is 
that ash is particularly liable to be struck by liyhtriing. 




34 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

One half of the thirty known species of the genus Fraxinus 
inhabit North America. 

The name ash is also apphed to several species of the genus I'yrus or Sorbus, 
to which the apple, pear, quince, and some other trees belong. Olive, orani^e and 
other " fruitwoods " are in different genera. 



Most trees that yield common edible fruits are valued for them and such trees 
are not normally cut down to any extent for wood. 

The Sweet or American Crab Apple tree (Pyrus coronaria) is native, inter- 
mittently, from Massachusetts and Nebraska, southward into Georgia and Texas. 
It rarely grows over twenty-five feet in height and one foot in diameter, and is 
often a low shrub. The hard, close-grained wood is occasionally used in turnery. 
The trees are particularly ])rized in landscape effects, because of their sweet 
scented flowers. The Oregon Crab Apple (Pyrus rivularis) grows naturally from 
California to Alaska and is sometimes forty feet in height. The fine, hard, heavy, 
close-grained wood is used for tool handles, mallets and similar small, turned 
objects. The Narrowleaf Crab Apple (Pyrus angustifolia) affords a similar wood. 

The Apple (Pyrus malus) is a small tree, rarely much over thirty feet in height. 
It origated in Europe, but is now common in all temperate climates. The hard, 
heavy, close-grained wood is brittle and apt to warp during seasoning. It is 
preeminently an implement wood and is sometimes turned into tool handles and 
olher small objects. Many varieties Tnave been perfected by cultivation, as see 
"The Apples of New York," Beach, Booth & Taylor, jjublishcd by N Y. .Slale 
Dept. Agriculture. 

The Pear (Pyrus communis) is a native of Europe and Asia, but is now cul- 
tivated in most temperate climates. The wood is rather hard and heavy, and so 
firm, tough, fine and close-grained that it has been used in jirinting. It was once 
valued for drawing-squares and triangles, but has been largely replaced for these 
purposes by hard rubber and celluloid. Pearwood is turned. It is used for 
furniture and is sometimes ebonized for small objects. Many varieties have been 
obtained by cultivation. 

The Orange (several species of Citrus as Citrus aurantium and Citrus Iri- 
foliata) was introduced into the West Indies, Florida, Louisiana and California 
from Asia or the Mediterranean shores. It is a small tree with oily, evergreen 
foliage, fragrant flowers and edible fruit. Fruit, oils and essences are highly 
prized. Trees are seldom cut. The strong, hard, heavy, very close-grained, 
lemon colored wood is made into souvenirs or other small objects. A piece of 
American orange wood ten inches wide was exhibited at the St. Louis Exposition. 
Many varieties of orange have been obtained by cultivation. 

The Olive (Olea europaea) was introduced from Asia or the Mediterranean 
countries into Southern California by the early Spanish Missions. The irregular 
trees, thirty or forty feet in height, have evergreen foliage and oily fruit. The 
fruit is so valuable that the trees are seldom cut. The mottled, rich orange-brown 
heartwood of foreign trees, made into souvenirs, inlaid work and other small 
objects, is hard, heavy, very close-grained and may be highly jiolishcd. but is not 
prized unless taken from older trees. American olive wood is not particularly 
attractive, because the heartwood has not matured suflSciently. Many varieties; 
of olive have been obtained by cultivation. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAE IVOOUS. 35 

White Ash. Fraxinus americana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Ash (local and common Cane Ash (Ala., Miss., La.). 

name). American Ash (la.). 

Ash (Ark., la., Wis., 111., 
Mo., Minn.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Texas. Greatest development in the Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. Three 
to four feet in diameter. Usually smooth leaves, have whitish 
under surlaces. Gray bark in prominent vertical ridges. 
Long-winged seed. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, usually mottled; sapwood much 
lighter or nearly white. Coarse-grained, compact .structure. 
Layers clearly marked by large open ducts. RleduUary rays 
obscure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, elastic, becoming brittle with age, not 
durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Agricultural implements, carriages, handles, oars, interior and 
cheap cabinet-work. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,640,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,440,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,800 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12, 200. 

Remarks. 

Economically valuable. Rapid growers, preferring low, rather 
moist soil. Not apt to form in forests, but found often in clumps 
mingled with other varieties. Large trees sometimes have large 
heart-cracks. 

* See page S. 

White ash is subject to a fungus disease by which its wood is reduced to a 
soft, pulpy, yellowish mass, unfit for lumber. The disease which known as white 
rot progresses until the tree becomes so weak that it is blown o\"cr by the winds. 
(See windfalls, page 155.) It does not attack dead or seasoned woods. Von 
Schrenk, U. S. Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 32. 



36 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

T> J A , I Fra.xiiius pennsvlvanica ]\Iarsh. 

Red Ash. J „ \, i ' r 

( rraxitius pubescens Lam. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Red Ash (local and common Brown Ash (Mo.), 

name). Black Ash (N. J.). 

River Ash (R. I., Ont.). Ash (Nebr.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Alabama. Best developed in North .\tlantic States. 

Features of Tree. 

A small tree, rarely over forty-five feet high, and about one foot 
in diameter. Downy-covered young twigs and leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, sapwoud light brown streaked with 
yellow, coarse-grained compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Agricultural implements, handles, boats, oars, paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

I, I 54,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Grows on borders of streams and swamps in low ground. Often 
confused with and substituted for the more valuable white ash. 
Pubescens is in allusion to the downy covering of the new 
twigs (those of white ash usually smooth). Pennsylvanica 
refers to locality in which it is well developed. 



EXOGENOUS SERlES-liROADLEAE IVOODS. 37 

Blue Ash. Ftuxinus quadiangulata Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth. ) 

Blue Ash (Mich., HI., Ky., Mo., Ala.). 
Localit}-. 

Central States, Missis.sippi Valley, Michigan, and southward, 
cultivated in Pennsylvania. Best in low Wabash Valley. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occa.sionally higher, one to 
two feet in diameter. Slender. Blue properties in inner 
bark, smooth square twigs. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow, streaked with brown, sapwood lighter, 
close-grained, compact structure satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, brittle, not strong, most durable of ash woods. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used in floorings, carriage-building, pitchfork- and 
other tool-handles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot 

44. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 100,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 

Has no superior among ash woods. Blue Ash pitchfork -handles 
are very fine. Prefers limestone formations. Inner bark 
colors water blue, whence name. 



38 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

-a, , A 1. ( Fraxmus ^liera Marsh. 

Black Ash. \ u ■ ■ i. r i- t 

( rraxmus samoucijolia Lam. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Black Ash (local and common Swamp Ash ( Vt. , R. I. , N. Y. ). 

name). Brown Ash (N. H., Tenn.). 

Water Ash (\V. Va., Tenn., Hoop Ash (Vt., N. V., Dl-1., 

Ind.). Ohio, 111., Ind.). 

Locality. 

Northern and Northeastern .States — Newfoundland to Virginia, 
westward intermittently to Manitoba and Arkansas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to eighty feet in height, one to one and one-half feet in 
diameter. Leaves resemble those of Elder. A thin tree. 
E.Kcrescences or knobs frequent on trunk. Dark, almost 
black, winter buds. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood light brown, often nearly 
white, coarse-grained, compact structure, medullary rays 
numerous and thin. 

Structural Qualities of ^^'ood. 

.Separates easily in layers, rather soft and heavy, tough, elastic, 
not strong or durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for interior finish, fencing, barrel-hoops, cabinet- 
making, splint baskets, chair-bottoms. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39- 
Modulus of P'lasticity. 

1,230,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,400. 

Remarks. 

Excrescences known as burls; their distorted grain causes them 
to be prized for veneers. The most northerly of ash-trees; 
one of the most slender of trees. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO/inLE/IF IVOODS. 39 

P • . ( Fraxinus lanceiilata Botkh. 

\ I'raxinus vinais Michx. /. 

Nomenclature. (Siuhvorth.) 

Green Ash (local and coininon Ash (Ark. Iowa). 

name). Swamp Ash (Fla., Ala., Tex.). 

Blue Ash (Ark., Iowa). Water Ash (Iowa). 

White Ash (Kans., Neb.). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky Rluuntain.s. Vermont and nortliern FloriiU 
intermittently to Utah and Arizona. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Brii;ht 
green upper and lower surfaces of -smooth leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter, rather coarse-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities. 

Hard, heavy, strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses. 

Similar to those of White Ash. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds jkt Cubic Foot. 
39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,050,000 (average of 10 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
I, 280,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

11,600 (average of 10 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,700. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes considered a variety of Red Ash. 



* See page 8 



40 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Oregon Ash. Fraxinus oregona Kutt. 

Nomenclature. 

Oregon Ash (Calif., Wash., Oregon). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, Washington to California. Best developed in 
bottom lands, southwestern Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to occasionally seventy-five feet in height, one to one 
and one-half feet in diameter. Dark grayish-brown, bark 
exfoliates in thin scales. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, compact 
structure, numerous thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Rather light, hard, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

RIanufacture of furniture, carriage-frames, cooperage, and fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

I, 200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9400. 

Remaiks. 

One of the valuable deciduous trees of the Pacific coast. 
Thrives only on moist soils and in moist climates. 



" Mountain Ash " is either Pyrus americana or Pyrus sambucifolia. Both 
species, with their bright red berries, are to be classed as shrubs rather than trees; 
their light, soft, weak, close-grained woods having no economic importance, save 
perhaps for fuel. The series is partially as follows: also see page 34. 
Pyrus malus (Common apple). Pyrus americana (Mountain ash). 

Pyrus coronaria (American crab-apple). Pyrus sambucifolia (Mountain ash). 
Pyrus communis (Common pear). Pyrus ancuparia (Rowan tree, European 

Pyrus vulgaris (Common quince). Mountain ash). 

The Toothache Trees, Xanthoxylum americana and Xantho.xylum clava-herculis 
(Linn.), are known as ash and prickly ash. The gopher wood, Cladrastis tinctoria, 
is yellow ash. These woods are not important. 



PLATE T. ELM (I wiiis r-ncruana). 




ELM. 

{Ulinus.) 

The different species of elm are distributed over the cold 
and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere, save 
western United States and Canada. A high degree of perfec- 
tion is attained in eastern North America, where trees are 
greatly prized for tlieir form and appearance. 

The fohage of tlie ehn is concentrated at the top, and tlie 
absence of lower branches causes it to be a good tree to plant 
near houses or along streets. 
Much of the wood is tougli, fibrous, 
durable, strong, hard, hca\}', and, 
because it is so often cross- 
grained, difificultto split and work. 
The large pores of the spring 
wood arranged in one or several 
rows mark the annual deposit, 
while the minute pores of the 
summer wood arranged in con- 
centric wavy lines are so peculiar 
as to distinguish this wood from 
all others. The tall, straight trunks afford pieces of con- 
siderable size. Elni piles sustain constant and severe shocks 
for long intervals. The grain arrangement of elm is often 
very beautiful, so that it is increasing]}- used for decoration. 
It is more commonly employed in the construction of cars, 
wagons, boats, agricultural implements, machiner}', and fur- 
niture. 

The shape of the trees is so marked as to cause them to be 
easily noted. Fifteen or sixteen species have been recognized. 
Five are known to exist in the eastern American forests, and 
all of them furnish good wood of commercial importance. 
Ulinus was the ancient name of the elm. 

Geo. B. Emerson's "Trees and Shrubs of M.issacliusetts." 




Elm ( i'liiiiis 



iricd/iti). 



42 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES Of IVOOD. 

White Elm. Ulmus aincricana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

White Elm (local and common name). 

Water Elm (Miss., Te.x., Ark., Mo., III., la., Mich., Minn., 

Neb.). 
Elm (IMass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., N. C, S. C, la., Wis.). 
American Elm (Vt., Mass., R. L, N. Y., Del., Pa., N. C, 

Miss., 'I'e.x., ill., Ohio, Kans., Neb., Mich., ■Minn.). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky ^Mountains, Newfoundland to l'"lorida, westward 
intermittently to Dakota, Nebraska, and Te.xas. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to seven feet in 
diameter, Characteristic and beautiful form, smooth buds; 
leaves, smaller than those of Slippery Elm, are rough only when 
rubbed one way. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white, rather 
coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, tough, fibrous, difficult to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Flooring, wheel-stock, cooperage, ship-building, flumes, piles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
34 (U. S. Forestry Division.)* 

40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,540,000 (average of iS tests by U. S. Forestry I~)iv.).* 
t, 060, 000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,300 (average of 18 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,100. 

Remarks. 

The concentration of foliage at top, together with the form of 
the tree, renders it valuable in landscape work. It does not 
cause dense shade. Elm and silver-maple trees are among 
the first to show life in spring. Discardetl brownish scales 
then cover ground in vicinity. 

* See page S. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADl.EAF IVOODS. 43 

Cork Elm. Ulmus racemosa Thomas. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cork Elm (local and common Rock Elm (R. I., W. Va. ,Ky., 

name). Mo., 111., Wis., la., Mich.,' 

Hickory Elm (Mo., 111., Ind., Nebr.). 

la.). White Elm (Ont.). 

Cliff Elm (Wis.). 
Locality. 

Quebec and Vermont, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Tennessee. Best developed in southern Ontario and 
Michigan. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Thick, corky, irregular projections give bark a shaggy appear- 
ance and mark the species. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, often tinged with red; sapwood 
yellowish or greenish white. Compact structure, fibres inter- 
laced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, very strong, tough, difficult to split, susceptible 
of a beautiful polish, elastic. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy agricultural implement.s, wheel-stocks, railway ties, sills, 
bridge-timbers, a.xe-helves, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,550,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15, 100. 

Remarks. 

Cork Elm is the best of the elm woods. 



44 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Slippery Elm, Red Elm. -j ^,y,„„^^,^/^„ ^,^,,.;^ ^. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Slippery Elm, Red Elm (local Redwooded Elm (Teiin.). 
and common name). IMoose Elm (occasional). 

Rock Elm (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Ontario and Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. Best developed in Western States. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to sixty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Characteristic shape, mucilaginous inner bark. Buds hairy. 
Leaves, larger than American Elm, are rough when rubbed 
either way. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heart wood dark brown or red, sapwood lighter, compact 
structure, annual layers marked by rows of large open ducts. 
Heartwood greatly preponderates. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for fence-posts, rails, railway ties, sills, sleigh- 
runners, and wheel-stocks. Mucilaginous bark, employed in 
medicine. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Mucilaginous inner bark renders this species unmistakable. 
This bark is used in medicine. 



EXOGENOUS Sl-.RIl'.S-liRO/IDlJiMH IVOODS. 45 

Wing Elm, Winged Elm. L 'Imus alaia Mk/ix. 
Nomenclature. 

Winfi^Elm, Winged Elm (local Mountain Elm, Red Elm (Ela., 

and common names). Ark.). 

Wahoo, Whahoo (\V. Va., N. Elm, Witch Elm (W. \'a.). 

C, S. C, La., Te.x., Ky., Water Elm (Ala.). 

Mo.). Small-leaved Elm (X. C). 

Cork Elm, Corky Elm (l-'la., Wahoo Elm (Mo.). 
S. C, Te.\.). 

Locality. 

Southern United States, Virginia and Elorida westward inter- 
mittently to southern Illinois and 'J'exas. 

Features of Tree. 

Eorty feet or more in height, one to two feet in diameter. Corky 
" wings " on branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Color brownish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of ^^"ool.l. 
Hard, heavy, tough. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

740,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10, 200. 
Remarks. 

Not a very common tree. 



MAPLE. 

(Acer.) 

The maples grow on all of the continents of the northern 
hemisphere. Nearly one half of the known species belong in 
China, Japan, and the Orient. The principal European 
species {Aci'r pseudo-platanus) is the European scycamore.* 
The hard or sugar maple {Acer saccliariini) is one of the 
principal deciduous trees of North America. 

Maple wood t is characterized by its appearance and by its 
fine compact texture. The first quality is so marked that 
selected pieces take rank among the most beautiful of cabinet 
woods ; the last is so pronounced as to fit it for carvings and 
even for type. "Birdseye," "blister," and "curly" 
maples are not from different species, but are the results of 
fibre distortions, possible in some form in any tree of any 
species, but peculiarly liable to occur in the maple; birdseye 
and blister effects for the most part in the hard maples, curly 
effects in the hard, but generally in the softer, species. The 
distortions do not occur in all trees, and it is seldom possible 
to tell whether the woods are thus figured until after the trees 
have been cut. Maple wood shrinks moderately, stands well 
in protected places, is strong, tough, but not durable when 
exposed. Pores are not arranged in circles, but are scattered 
irregularly throughout the layers. Maple is used for ceiling, 
flooring, panelling, car and ship construction, shoe-lasts, shoe- 
pegs, furniture, school supplies, implements, and machinery. 
Sugar is principally, although not exclusively, present in the 
sap of the sugar maple. % The softer species are sometimes 

* See Sycamore, page 65. 

\ These notes apply to the American product. 

J Vermont, New York, and Michigan produce the larger portion of the about fifty 
million pounds of sugar and three million gallons of syrup annually manufactured 
in the United States. Third Annual Report of the Fisheries, Game, and Forest 
Commissioners, New York, 1897, p. 308. 

45 



I'LATK 8. SlXiAR MAl'l.E {.tc.^r sacc/m 




•Curl)- " Maple Wuud {JissiClioii). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-HROAOLEAE tVOOUS. 



47 



tappcil, and sugar is also present in the sap of other trees, such 
as the butternut and birch. A sugar maple will, on an 
average, produce about twenty-five gallons of sap, containing 
a total of about six pounds of sugar, in a season. 

The Boxelder {^Acer jwgjmdd) is a true maple, remarkable 
in that it is widely distributed from Canada to Mexico and 
from the Atlantic to the I'iock-y 
Mountains, on low bottom lands, 
and at elc\ations of five thousand 
and six thousand feet.* The trees 
are beautiful and, like other maples 
are \alued for ornamental purposes. 
The soft, light wood is not partic- 
ularl)- noted, although occasionally 
used for woodenware, interior finish, 
and paper-pulp. Small quantities 
of sugar are present in the sap of 
this tree. 

The maples may be told by their 
leaves of characteristic shape, but 
chiefly by their two-seeded fruit or 
" keys," the two wings of which 
spread differently in different species. 
The leaves of some species change 
in autumn from green to red and other brilliant colors. Those 
of other species change to yellow without trace of red. Sixty 
to seventy species have been distinguished, nine of which occur 
in North America. 




(7. Boxelder. />, Hard nr Sui^ar 
Maple, c, Soft or Red Maple. 
d. Soft or Silver Maple. 



' Sargent. 



48 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

^ Ti/r 1 TT J KJT 1 \ Acer sacchiirurii Mar\h. 

Sugar Maple, Hard Maple. ■ , , „. 

° ( Acer sacc.n.innu III Wiiiig. 

Nomunclature. (Siuhvorth. ) 

Sugar :Maple, Hard Maple (local Rock Maple (Me., Vt., N. H., 

and common namesj. Conn., Mass., R. I., N. Y., 

Black Maple (Fla., Ky., N. C\). Tenn., III., Mich., la., 

Sugar Tree (frequent). Kans., W'js., Minn.). 

Locality. 

Best development Maine to Minnesota; range extends southward 
to Florida and Te.xas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet and more in height, one and one- 
half to four feet in diameter. The fruit or "maple-key" 
with wings less than right angles ripen in early autumn; one 
seed-cavity is usually empty. Foliage turns to brilliant reds 
and other colors later. Large impressive tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

HeartW(_>od brow-nish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact 
structure, occasional "curly,'' "blister," or " birdseye " 
effects. 

Structural Qualities of \^'ocjd. 

Tough, heavy, hard, strong, susceptible of good polish, wears 
evenly, not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, shoe-lasts, piano-actions, wooden type for showbills, 
pegs, interior finish, flooring, ship-keels, vehicles, fuel, 
veneers, rails, etc. 

\A'cight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per (.'ubic Foot. 

43- 
]\Iodulus of p]lasticity. 

2,070,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Birdseye, blister, and to a less extent curly and landscape 
effects pronounced in this species. Saccliarum refers to sugar 
manufactured from the sap. Hard maple is because of hard- 
ness of wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— ftROADLEAF IVOODS. 49 

^M Tir 1 c^ ij. tut f ( Acer saccharinum Linn. 

Sliver Maple, Soft Maple. , , ,7-; 

'^ ' ( Acer uasycarpum JLhr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli. ) 

Silver Maple, Soft Maple (local White Maple (Me., Vt., R. I., 

and common names). N. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., 

Swamp Maple (W. Va., Md.). N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., 

Water Maple (Pa., W. Va.). Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., 

River Maple (Me., N. H., 111., Ind., Kans., Nebr., 

R. 1., W. Va., Minn.). i\Iinn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Indian Territory. Best devel ^pment in lower Ohio 
River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to ninety ieet in height, occasionally higher. Three to 
five feet in diameter. Fine shape, sometimes suggests elm. 
Fruit or "maple-key" with long, stiff, more than right- 
angled wings ripens in early summer. Leaves whitish 
beneath, turn showing yellow, but little or no red, in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood ivory-white, fine gr.ain. 
compact structure. Fibres sometimes twisted, waved, or 
curly. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, brittle, easily worked, moderately strong; receives high 
polish. Not durable when exposed. 

Repre.sentative Uses of Wood. 

Woodenware, turned work, interior decoration, flooring, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic F'oot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,570,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,400. 

Remarks. 

Waved, spiral, or curly figure pronounced in this species, very 
real resemblance to lights and shadow-s on planed surfaces. 
Small quantities of sugar present in sap, occasionally utilized. 



50 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Red Maple, Swamp Maple. Acer ruhrum Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Red JMaple, Swamp JMaple Water Maple (Miss., La., I'e.K., 

(local and common names). Ky., Mo.). 

Soft Maple (Vt., Mass., N. Y., White Maple (Me., N. H.). 

Va., Miss., Mo., Kans., Red Flower (N. V.). 

Neb., Minn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick and Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Te.xas. Wide range. 

Features of Tree. 

Si.xty to eighty feet and more in height, two and one-half to 
four feet in diameter. Red twigs and flowers in early spring. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwo(jd lighter, close- 
grained, compact structure. Red blossoms, twigs, and stems. 
Leaves turn scarlet in autumn. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Easily worked, heavy, hard, not strong, elastic, qualities 
between those of silver and sugar maple. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used in cabinet-making, turnery, woodenware, gun- 
stocks, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,34.0.000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Occasionally shows "curly" figure. Trees are occasionally 
tapped and small quantities of sugar are obtained from the 
sap. 



EXOGHNOUS SliRlliS-BROADUiAh- IVOODS. 51 

Oregon Maple. Acer macruphyllum Pursh. 

Nuiucnclutuic. (Slid worth.) 

Oregon JMaple(Uix-g., Wasli.), Broad-leaved Maple (Central 

White Rlaplc (Greg., Wash.). Calif., Willamette Valley, 

Maple (Calif.). Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Ala.ska to California. Best in rich bottom lands of southern 
Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in 
diameter. Beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Reddish brown, sapwood whitish, close-grained, compact 
structure, occasionally figured. 

Structural Qualities. 

Light, hard, strong; receives polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Locally used for tool-handles, turned work, and furniture. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Loot. 

30. 
Modulus of Llasticity. 

1,100,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9720. 

Remarks. 

Ornamental tree has been introduced into Europe. Said to be 
one of the most valuable Pacific coast broadleaf woods. 



52 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple. ] i"' 'J""'^" ^;""- , 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Boxelder, Ash-k-aved Maple Stinking Ash (S. C. ). 

(local and common names). Negundo ]\laple (111,). 

Rtd River Maple, Water Ash Three-leaved Maple (Fla. ). 

(Dak.). Black Ash (Tenn.). 

Cut-leaved Maple (Colo.). Sugar Ash (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic Ocean westward intermittently to Rocky jMountains, 
Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to three feet 
in iliameter. Wmgs to keys are straight or incurved. Leave 
sparingly and coarsely toothed, show yellow but little or no 
red in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood, cream-white; sapwood similar; close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, not strong, soft. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Woodenware, cooperage, etc., paper-pulp (largely), occasionally 
interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

26. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

82,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7500. 

Remarks. 

A rapid grower. Withstands severe climatic changes. A good 
tree to plant in naturally treeless sections. Sugar is sometimes 
obtained from the sap of this species. Tlie " Boxelder" is 
a true maple. 



PLATE 9. WALNUT {Jiishms). 




Black Walnut Tree (^Juglans nigra). Black Walnut Trunk (Jiiglatis nigra) 

Black, White, and English Walnuts. Black \\'alnut \\'ood (Jiig/tins nigra). 



WALNUT. 

( /iiii/aiis.) 

Tlic I''.n.L;"lish or Royal Walnut (Juglans rcgid), a native of 
Persia, was the only a\ailable sjiecies of this L^enus until the 
introduction of the nearly similar Black Walnut of North 
America."''" As oak L;a\'e u a_\' fust to soft woods for construc- 
tion, so it gave way first to walnut for cabinet purposes. The 
wood soon became very fashionable, and exorbitant prices 
were paid for it. Walnut was extremely popular in the United 
States until about 1880, wiien oak began to resume its place as 
the popular cabinet wood. The nuts of the English or Persian 
walnut are better than those of the American species, but the 
wood of the latter is superior. 

The use of walnut wood for gun-stocks began in Europe, 
the demands early becoming so great that, until the general 
peace following the battle of Waterloo, the greater part of the 
French product was dix'crtcd for that purpose, while prices rose 
in England so that six hundred pounds sterling is reported to 
have been paid for a single tree. In spite of the innumerable 
woods that have since been introduced, this one is yet regarded 
as best for gun-stocks. t W^alnut is a firm, hard, chocolate- 
colored wood, with pores not arranged in rings but scattered 
somewhat irregularly. The sombre, although rich, color has 
been objected to for some positions. Large excrescences or 
" burrs " are common on foreign trees, particularly those near 
the Black Sea ancl in Ital\-. The grain in such growths is 
beautifully irregular, and the wood, known as " burl," is prized 
for \'eneers. Trees are ver\' scarce, and \\alnut is now seldom 
seen save in cabinet work or gun-stocks. The related White 
Walnut or Butternut {Juglans cincrcti) affords a less-prized and 

* .Xbout tlie middle of the seveiiteeiitli century. 

|- France used twelve thousand trees in i8u6. (Stevenson's ''Trees of Com- 
merce," p. 77.) 

53 



54 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD- 

ligliler-tinted wood. The nuts of the wahiuts are a source of 
profit. This is particularly true of the English Walnut (Jiiglans 
regia), which is extensively cultivated for its fruit in California. 
The City of Pasudena has in a single season (1904) realized 
$7375 f'^o"^ sixteen hundred fifteen-year-old trees cultivated in 
connection with its sewage farm.* 

Black wLilnut trees seldom form forests by themselves, but 
occur generally in mixed growth. They grow quickly, but the 
heartwood for which the tree is valued begins to form only 
when the tree is at a considerable age, so that a number of 
years must elapse before a tree can produce wood of the 
desired quality. Trees one hundred years old furnish the best 
quality of wood. 

Small pieces of dark, rich brown wood are available from the 
Mexican or Arizona Walnut {Juglans rupestris), which grows in 
sparsely settled areas from Texas- and Arizona southward into 
Mexico, and is also known as the Western, Dwarf, Little, and 
California Walnut. The California Walnut {Juglans californica) 
inhabits the coast region, intermittently, from the Sacramento 
River to the San Bernardino Mountains. Trees are often very 
small, but diameters of fifteen inches are not uncommon. The 
blue brown woods, while suited for cabinet making, are seldom 
used. Both Mexican and California species afford coarse nuts, 
gathered by children. The English Walnut is sometimes grafted 
on trees of the last named species. 

Circassian Walnut wood is di>tinct from common black walnut 
in that the color is not solid. There are large open figures, waves 
and streaks showing black with yellowish whhe. The rich effects 
and the scarcity of this product rank it with satinwood. It is used 
in piano cases, panel work, and other costly decorations. 

Walnut trees may be known by their nuts, the husks or pods 
of which adhere unbroken, instead of loosening, completely 
divided into four sections, as with the hickories. Juglans is from 
Jovis, signifying Jove's and glaiis, signifying acorn. This nut, 
not the fruit of the oak, was the acorn of the ancients.f 

* The net returns of the preceding season amounted to $4738. 
t The ancients considered the shade of the walnut as harmful to all life. It is 
certain some vegetation is affected, probably by properties in fallen leaves. 



EXOGENOUS SERIHS—HRO^DLEAH ^VOODS. 55 

Black Walnut. Jughms nigra Jinn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Black Walnut (local and common name). 

Walnut (N. Y., Del., W. Va., Fla., Ky., Mo., Ohio, Ind., la.). 
Locality. 

Ontario and Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred antl twenty-five feet in height, three to 
eight feet in diameter, A tall handsome tree with rough 
brownish, almost black, bark. Large, rough-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark, rich, chocolate-brown. Thin sapwood much 
lighter, rather coarse-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, easdy worked, durable, susceptible to high 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, gun-stocks, also formerly furniture and decora- 
tion. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic I'oot. 

38. 
IModulus of Elasticity. 

1,550,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12, 100. 
Remarks. 



The English, Royal, or Persian Walnut (Juglans regia) affords 
nearly similar wood. Widely distributed over Europe. Italian trees 
furnish best, French ne.Kt, and English least desirable, palest and 
coarsest wood. Occasional trees in Eastern United States, as New 
York; very plentiful in California. 



56 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OP IVOOD. 

Butternut, White Walnut. Juglam cinerea Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Butternut, White Walnut Walnut (Minn.), 
(local and common names). White Mahogany. 

Oil Nut (Me., N. H., S. C). 

Localit}'. 

New Brunswick to Georgia, westward to Dakota and Arkansas. 
Best in Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Medium size, sometimes seventy-five feet or over in height, two 
to four feet in diameter. Brandies widespread; large-sized 
oblong edible nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; sap- 
wood nearly white, coarse-grained compact structure, attrac- 
tive. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, easily worked. Susceptible of high 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Interior finish, cabinet-work. Inner bark furnishes yellow dye. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modidiis of Elasticity. 

I, I 50,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

The sap contains sugar and is occasionally mi.xed with maple- 
sap in the manufacture of "maple" sugar. ButterniUs when 
half grown are often pickled. The bark aSords a mild cathartic 
that resembles rhubarb in its action and that was much em- 
ployed by the physicians attached to the American Army 
during the Revolutionary War. Butternut wood is one of the 
cheaper woods that must now be employed. 



PLATK 10. HICKORY {Uicoria ovata). 




^' 



.-ra?^ 






fc-:--- 



HICKORY. 

{Hicoria or Caryj. ) 

The Hickories occur only in the eastern part of North 
America. They produce woods in which the qualities of 
toughness, elasticity, and resilience are unusually pronounced, 
and since these qualities are greatest in the sapwood, 
hickories are peculiar in that the sapwood is more valuable 
than the heart. Second-growth wood is much prized, since, 
being younger, it contains more of the pliable sapwood.* Most 
second growth woods are regarded as being inferior to first 
growth woods because sapwood is usually less desirable. The 
reputation of American hammers and axes owe much to the 
qualities of their hickory handles. 

Hickory is not durable when exposed and is more or less 
subject to attack by boring-insects. It is used for implements, 
machinery, carriages, and the like; hickory axe-helves have 
no superiors. The nuts of the shagbark or white hickorj' are 
a source of considerable profit. The pecan [Hicoria pecan) 
affords wood so inferior as to be little used in construction, 
although it makes an excellent fuel. Pecans are planted in 
many of the Southern States because of the nuts, for which a 
considerable demand exists. 

The Hickories are known by their nuts, the husks or pods 
of which loosen completely from the nut in four pieces, instead 
of adhering unbroken as in the case of the walnuts. The nine 
species are American trees, eight of them being natives of the 
United States. Carya was the Greek name of the common 
walnut. Hickory is said to be derived from the Indian 
powcoliicora, a liquor once obtained from the nuts of the 
hickory. 

* See Second-urowth .\sh. 



SS THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Shagbark (Hickory), Shellbark (Hickory). | g^;::rA^,f ^' 

Shagbark 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Shagbark or Shellbark Hickory Hickory (Vt. , Ohio). 

(local and common name). Upland Hickory (111.). 

Scalybark Hickory (W. \'a., White Hickory (la., Ark.). 

S. C, Ala.). Walnut (Vt., N. Y.). 

Shellbark (R. I., N. Y., Pa., Sweet Walnut (Vt.). 

N. C). Shagbark Walnut (Vt.). 
Shagbark (R. I., Ohio). 

Locality. 

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota and 
Texas. Wide range, best in Ohio valley. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher; two 
and one-half to three feet in diameter. Shaggy bark, thin- 
shelled edible nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory- or cream -colored. 
Close-grained, compact structure. Annual rings clearly 
marked. Medullary rays numerous but thin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

\'ery heavy, very hard, strong, exceptionally tough and flexible, 
not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for agricultural implements, wheels, and runners, 
axe-handles, baskets, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
51 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,390,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,900,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

16,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

The nuts form an important article of commerce. " Shagbark " 
refers to the shaggy appearance of the bark. 

* See page 8. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAE IVOODS. 59 

_. ^ ,rT- 1 \ Ilicoria glabra Mill. 

Pignut (Hickory) . -I ^.,,,,_^ ^^^.^^^^^ y„,,_ 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Pignut (local and common Hittc-rnut (Ark., 111., la.. Wis.). 

name). \\\m^ Hickory (X. II., la.). 

Black HiLkiirv (Miss., La., Broom Hickory (:\lo.). 

Ark., !\1..., Inck, la.). Hardshell (W. Va.). 

Brown Hickoiy (Del., Miss., Red Hickory (Del.). 

Tex,, Tenn.^ Minn.). Switchbud Hickory (Ala.). 

Locality. 

Ontario to Floritla, westward intermittently to southern 
Nebraska and eastern Te.xas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; 
Two to four feet in diameter. Rather smooth bark. Large 
thick-shelled nuts, kernels often astringent or bitter. 

Color, .Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light and dark brown, thick sapwood, lighter, 
nearly white. Close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, flexible, tough, strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of shagbark hickor}'. 

^^'eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

56 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

51- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,730,000 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

1,460,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

18,700 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,800. 

Remarks. 

Nuts are devoured by pigs, whence the name porcma. 



* See page 8. 



6o THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

■n/r 1 nT i ,TT- 1 > I Hicoria alha Linn. 

Mocker Nut (Hickory . •„ , , ,. „ 
^ ( Ci7-'"i'i7 lomen/osa Au//. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Mocker Nut, Whiteheart Hick- Hickory (Ala., Tex., Pa., S. 

cry (local and common C. , Neb.). 

names). Big-bud, Red Hickory (Fla.). 

Bullnut (N. Y., Fla., ]\liss.. Common Hickory (N. C). 

Tex., lAIo., Ohio., III., White Hickory (Pa., S. C). 

Minn.). Hickory Nut (Ky., W. Va.). 

Black Hickory (Tex., Miss., Hog Nut (Del.)! 

La., Mo.). Hard bark Hickory (111.). 

Locality. 

Ontario to Florida, westward intermittently to Missouri and 
Texas. Wide range. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, two and one-half to 
three and c^ne-half feet in diameter. A tall slender tree with 
rough, but not shaggy, bark. Thick shell, edible nut. 

Color, Appearance, or (Jrain tA Wo(.>d. 

Heartwood rich dark brown, thick sajjwood nearly white, 
close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very heavy, hard, tough, strong, and flexible. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of shellbark hickory. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

53 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

51- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,320,000 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,630,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

15,200 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
16,000. 

Remarks. 

The most generally distributed species of the genus in the South. 
Mocker nut ormokernut is said (Britton) to be from a Dutch 
word meaning hammer, or else (Keeler) from disappointing 
quality of nuts. 

* See page 8. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF H^OODS (>i 

T^ TT- 1 : \ Uicitria pecan Marsh. 

Pecan, Hickory). - .. r r ■ ,- „ 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pecan (local and common name). 
Pecan Nut, Pecan-tree, Pecanier (La.). 

Locality. 

Valley of Mississipjii, southward to Louisiana, Te.xas, and 
Me.Kico. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, sometimes higher. Two 
and one-half to five feet in diameter. A tall tree, smooth- 
shelled oblong edible nuts. 

Color, -Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, tinged with red^ sapwood lighter 
bniwn. Close-grained and compact, medullary rays numerous 
but llim. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, not strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood 

Fuel, seldom used in construction. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

49 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

44. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,530,000 (average of 37 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

940,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

15,300 (average of 37 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
8,200. 

Remarks. 

Grows on borders of streams in low rich soil. Largest and 
most important tree of western Texas. The sweet edible nuts 
form an important article of commerce. 



* See page 8. 



CHESTNUT, CHINQUAPIN. 
(Castaitea.) 

The chestnut is found in the temperate regions of central 
and southern Europe, northern Africa, China, Japan, and 
eastern North America. Tlie wood is valued in construction, 
and the much-prized nuts are regarded as a food rather than a 
confection. European chestnut wood was once high in favor, 
although examination of structures in which it was supposed 
to have been used indicates that in some instances oak had 
been mistaken for it and had been employed in its place. 

The North American chestnut affords a weak, brittle, but 
easily worked and very durable wood, such as is admirably 
adapted for beams, ties, and sills, where lightness and 
durability rather than much transverse strength are required. 
Trees in Europe have attained to great size and age. Micheaux 
mentions one thirty feet in circumference six feet from the 
ground and said to have been standing for a thousand years. 
The famous Mt. Etna chestnut * is reported to have measured 
two hundred and four feet in circumference. Large trunks are 
apt to be hollow, affording brittle, useless wood. The 
botanical relation between the American and European chest- 
nuts is not distinct. Some consider the former a distinct 
species, others a variety only. The name "Chinquapin" 
applies to two distinct botanical species, one, the Castanea 
pumila, closely related to the common chestnut; the other, 
Castanopsis chrysophylla, belonging to the same family 
(Cupuliferae), but to quite another genus. Both afford woods 
resembling, but heavier than, chestnut. 

The Western, Golden or California Chinquapin {Castaiwp's 
chrysophylla) has a light, compact, soft, reddish wood, that 

* " Castagno di cento cavalli," so called from having slifllered loo mounted 
caialiers, measured by Brydon in 1770. It had the appearance of five distinct 
trees, but was probably one trunk. (G. B. Emerson, " Trees and Shrubs of 
Massachusetts," Vol. I, page 192.) 

62 



I'l.Ali; 11. rilllSr.Nin' {^Castam-a Jinlata). 




F.XOGENOUS SERIES -BROADLEAF IVOODS. 63 

suggests chestnut and that is sometimes locally used for imple- 
ments. The handsome evergreen leaves have golden under sur- 
faces. The sweet hard-shelled nuts resemble filberts. The trees 
arc very beautiful and are fitted for landscape purposes. They 
grow from Oregon to Central California. The Golden Chestnut, 
which is the nearest native Pacific Coast approach to the Eastern 
or American chestnut, is sometimes called the Evergreen Chestnut. 

The American Chestnut {Caslanea vulgaris) may ue regarded 
for its wood, its tanin and its fruit. The very durable wood is 
one of the best of its range for fence-posts and mudsills. Hough 
mentions a fence-rail that was good after having been exposed for 
about one hundred years. This durability is largely due to the 
presence of tannic acid that is so abundant as to be separated and 
employed in tanning.* The nuts are finer and sweeter than 
those produced by foreign species, yet American chestnut trees 
arc seldom cultivated for nuts. The Spanish, French and Italian 
nuts arc highly prized and are gathered as commercial crops. 
The best of these nuts are imported or are eaten when fresh, the 
others are dried and made into a flour that is used for bread 
and cake. Some nuts are candied {marrons glaces). The Italian 
government encourages the production of nuts by gratuitously 
distributing young trees. f The American chestnut tree is equally 
worthy of cultivation since it will grow rapidly on any soil within 
its native areas. Its wood and its bi-products are likely always 
to be in dertiand. 

The chestnut may be known by its large prickly burr, contain- 
ing from one to three thin-shelled, triangular, wedge-shaped nuts. 
Both chinquapins have prickly burrs containing one, or sometimes 
two, sweet edible nuts. Three of the four known species of the 
genus Castanea grow in North America, one the common chestnut 
{Castanea vulgaris) ; another the Chinquapin {Caslanea pumila) ; 
the third a plant never attaining to the size of a tree. The 
Chinquapin {Castanopsis chrysophylla) is the only North Amer- 
ican representative of a genus including twenty-five species. 

* Chestnut leaves are sometimes made into a tea, employed in connection with 
whooping cough. (U. S. Dispensatory.) 

t Penn. Dept. Forestry Statement, 1901, igo2. p. 93, loi. "Chestnut in 
Southern Maryland," Zon U. S. Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 53. 



64 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

i Cdslanea dentala {^Rlarsh) Borkh. 
Chestnut. -1 Caslanea vesca var. americana Michx. 

( Casianea vulgaris var. americana A. de C. 

Nomenclature. 

Chestnut (local and common name). 

Locality. 

New England, New York to Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi. 
Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan. Best on western slope ol 
Alleghany Mountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, five to twelve feet 
in diameter. Fine characteristic shape, not easily distin- 
guished from Red Oak in winter. Blossoms in midsummer. 
Prickly burrs contain three thin-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, liable to check and warp in drying. 
Easily split. Very durable in exposed positions. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, railway ties, posts, fencing, sills. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9800. 

Remarks. 

The nuts of the foreign species (C. vesca) as well as those of the 
domestic species are much prized. The former are larger and 
the latter sweeter. One of the latest trees to blossom. Foreicn 
species are cuhivated in California for their nuts. 



EXOGENOUS SERir.S—BRO/IDLEAh- IVOOUS. 65 

Chinquapin. Cashmea pumila {/.inn.) Mill. 

Noniunclaturc. (Sudworth. ) 

Chinquapin (Del., N. J., Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., 
Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ohio, Ky., Mo., Mich.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Florida, Mi.s.sis.sii)pi, Louisiana, 'I'e.xas, Arkan- 
sas, Ohio, Kentucky, .Mis.souri, .Michig^an. 
Features of Tree. 

A small tree, sometimes forty-five feet in height, one to two feet 
or over in diameter. Sometimes reduced to low shrub. 
Small prickly burr with single small chestnut-colored nut. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable. 
Coarse-grained, annual layers marked by rows of open ducts. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

I'iather heavy, hard, strong. Durable in exposed positions. 
Liable to check in drying. 

I\epresentative Uses of Wood. 
Posts, rails, railway ties, etc. 

M'eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of F.lasticity. 

1,620,000. 
IModulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 
Remarks. 



The Chinquapin {Castanop.'^is chri/.wphi/lla), is a tree with char- 
acteristics between oak and chestnut. Its wood is nearly 
similar to that of the Chinquapin Castanea pumila, and is 
sometimes used for implements. It is native in Oregon and 
California. 




BEECH. IRONWOOD. 

(Fiigus.) {Carpintis, Ostrva, elc.) 

Beech is well known on the eastern continent. The 
common beech {Fagus atropimicca) is the only American 
representative. liastern species 
^i^-fi?^i have figured in literature since the 
time of Virgil. The northern na- 
tions early wrote upon thin tablets 
of beechwood, and hoc, bok, and 
Imclic, the northern names for 
beech, finally gave origin to the 

Bkecii {Ftitriis atropmiicea). , , ,...•, ^ , • ' t i- 

word book." American Indians 
believed that the beech was proof against lightning. 

Beechwood is hard, heavy, strong, not durable when 
exposed, and somewhat subject to attack by insects. European 
engineers employ it to a considerable extent in construction, 
but it is seldom used in America save for indoor finish, furni- 
ture, handles, flooring, and the like. The small edible nuts, 
known as beech-mast, are pressed abroad for a fixed oil, 
resembling and used in place of that from the olive. They 
are seldom gathered in this country, but are devoured by 
animals. Beech-trees have smooth, light-colored bark, and 
are very attractive in their winter appearance. They may be 
recognized earlier in the season by their small prickly burrs, 
each containing two triangular, sharp-edged nuts. There are 
fifteen or more species known to belong to this genus. FagJis 
is from phago, to eat, and refers to the nut. 

The name Ironwood has been applied to Blue Beech 
[Carpimis caroliniana), to the Hornbeam (Ostrya -cirginia)ia), 
and to at least eight other North American species affording 
unusually hard and heavy woods, such as are used for handles 

*Liber, the Latin for book, is from liber, the inner bark of a tree, while 
papyrus, the Latin for paper, is from an Egyptian reed of that name. The 
words "book," "library," and " paper" are thus drawn from trees and plants. 

66 



PLATK 12. HKKCII (F„,i;us). 







EXOGENOUS SEKlES—HRO/tDLEAF IVOODS. 67 

and implements.* Trunks of trees affording these woods are 
generally small and the weight of the woods is so great as 
to prevent their use in construction. 

♦Prosopis juliflora, Olneya tesota, Guajacum sanctum, Cliftonia monophylla, 
Cyrilla racemiflora, Exothea paniculata, Bumelia teiiax, Bumelia lycioides. 
(Suilwcrth.) 



The Coffee, Coffeenut, Coffeebean, Coft'eebean-tree or Mahogany 
{Gi/mnocktdus dioicu:) grows best between the Mississippi and the 
Alleghany Mountains. Trees are cultivated in many places. The 
strong, (kirable, rich-brownish wood works easily, polishes well and is 
well suited for cabinet work. The trees are valued in landscapes. 
The beans were once used for coffee. 



The Hackberr}-, Sugarberry, One-berry, Nettle-tree, False Elm or 
Juniper (Celtis occidentalis) grows intermittently from Canada to 
Florida and from the Atlantic to Arizona. Isolated specimens are 
sometimes locally famed as '' unknown trees." The rather hard, 
strong wood is sometimes seen in fencing and in cheap furniture. 



68 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

_ , ( Fagus atropunicea {A/ars/i.) Smhi'onh. 

( Fagus ferruginea Ait. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Beech (local and common White Beech (Me., Ohio., 

name). Mich.). 

Red Beech (Me., Vt., Ky., Ridge Beech (Ark.). 

Ohio.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Wisconsin 
and Te.xas. 

Features of Tree. 

Si.xty to eighty feet, occasionally higher; two to four feet in 
diameter. .Small rough burr contains two thin-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish, variable shades, sapwood white. Rather 
close-grained, conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, strong, tough, not durable when expcsed. Takes fine 
polish. Liable to check during seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, ship-building, handles, and fuel. Car- 
pentry (abroad), wagon-making, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

42. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

I, 720,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

The nuts are seldom gathered in the United States, nor is the 
wood there often utilized in carpentry. This is sometimes 
divided commercially into Red and White Beech, according 
to color of wood. Such division has no botanical basis. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES—BROADLEAI- IVOODS. 69 

Ironwood, Blue Beech. CluPuius caraliniana ]\\tlt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Ironwood, Blue Beech (local Hornbeam (Me., N. II., 

and Common name). Mass., R. I., Conn., X. Y., 

Water Be.ih (K. I., N. \., N. J., Pa., Del., X. C, 

Pa., 1)<1., W. Va., Ohio, .S. C, .\la., Tex., Kv., 111., 

111., Ind., .Mich., .Minn., Kans., Minn.). 

Xcbr. , Kans.). 

Locality. 

Quebec to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Te.xas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height. Six inches to occasionally two feet 
in diameter. A small tree, dark bluish-gray; bark resembles 
that of beech save in color. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very hard, tough, strong, heavy, very stiff, inclined to check 
during seasoning, not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Levers, tool-handles, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,630,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Prized by wheelwrights in Europe. Resemblance of bluish bark 
to light-gray bark of beech gave rise to name. 



7° THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam. Os/rja virgini?ia Willd. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam Hornbeam (R. I., N. Y., 

(local and common names). Fla. , S. C, La.). 

Leverwood (\^t., Mass., R. 1., Ilardhack {\'t-). 

N. Y., Pa., Kans.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to forty feet in height, one foot or less in diameter. 
The bark exhibits long vertical rows of small squares. Small 
fruit resembles hops. Leaves resemble those of birch. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sometimes white, sapwood lighter 
or white. Close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very strong, hard, heavy, tough, durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. • 

Posts, levers, tool-handles, axe-helves, mill-cogs, wedges. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

51- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,950,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Trees over twelve inches in diameter are often hollow. 



PLATE 13. SYCAMORE {Piatamts occiaentalis). 




tJiKirtLit'l S) i.aiuure Wuuil, 



SYCAMORE. 



[Platanus.) 

The name Sycamore applies to a maple {.leer pseudo- 
platanus) in Europe, to a fig-tree {Ficiis sycomortts) in the 
Orient,* and to the buttonball or plane tree {Platanus) in 
North America. Of the plane trees {Plahrims) the conimnn 
or Oriental plane {Platanus oricntalis) is a native of Europe; 
the plane, buttonball, or sycamore tree {Platanus occidcntalis) 
is a native and common tree in eastern North America; and 
the California plane, buttonball, 
or sycamore {Platanus raccniosd) 
is a native of western North 
America. 

The sycamore stands for curi- 
osity, because of its Biblical as- 
sociation with Zaccheus. Man}' 
European sycamores were planted 
by religious persons during the 
middle ages because of the belief 
that they were the trees thus re- 
ferred to in the Bible. 

The woods afforded by the 
American sycamores have unusually complicated, cross- 
grained, but beautiful structures, difficult to work, but standing 
well and valued for cabinet work and small articles. Ameri- 
can trees are often very large. 

American buttonball or sycamore trees are distinguished 
by rough balls which remain hanging on long stems through- 
out the winter. The bark also is shed to an unusual extent ; 
flakes of the outer cover drop away, exposing smooth inner 
surfaces so white as to appear as if painted. Six or seven 
species are included in the genus; three occur in North 
America. Platanus is from platus, signifying broad, and refers 
to the shape of the leaves. 




SvcAMriRK ( Platanus 
OicUeiitii/is). 



■ Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexicon (B. 15, p. 536). 



72 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sycamore. ) 

Buttonwood. ^ Plalanus uccidenlalis Linn. 

Buttonball-tree. i 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli. ) 

Sycamore, Buttonwood, lUit- Plane Tree (R. I., Del., S. C, 

tonball-tree (local and com- Kans., Xebr., la,). 

mon names). Water Beech (Del.). 

Buttonball (U. I., N. V., Pa., Platane cotonier, Bois puant 

Fla.). (La.). 

Localit}-. 

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. Best in bottom lands of Ohio and i\Iississippi River 
basins. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to over one hundred feet in height, six to sometimes 
twelve feet in diameter. Inner bark e.xposed in white patches. 
Large rough balls or fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, 
compact structures, satiny -conspicuous medullary rays. 
Attractive when quartered. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, difficult to work, not strong, stands well when not 
exposed. 

Representative L^ses of Wood. 

Tobacco-boxes, ox-yokes, butcher-blocks, cabinet-work. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
IModulus of F'lasticity. 

1, 2 20, coo. 
IModulus of Rupture. 

9000. 

Remarks. 

Some specimens rank among the largest of American deciduous 
trees. These are usually hollow. The remarkably rigid bark 
does not stretch to accommodate the growth and is thus dis- 
carded to an unusual degree. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- HKO.IDl.EAE IVOODS. Jl 

California Sycamore. J'hihmus lacemosa Xu/i. 
Nomenclature. 

Sycanioiv, JUittouwcod, llultunliall TrL-c, Buttonball (Call- 
fornia). 

Locality. 
Caliiornia. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred fi;ct in height, occasionally higher; 
three lo four feet in diameter. 'I'lie bark exfoliates in irreg- 
ular patches. 

C'liicir, A[)i)earance, or Orain of \\'ooil. 

lieartwood light rc;ildish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, 
compact structure, medullary rays numerous and conspicu- 
t)us. Jicautiful when (|uaitcred. 

.^tnutural (^)ualities of Wood. 

lirittlc, very difTicult to s]}lit and to season. Qualities similar 
til ilicise (if P. occidentalis. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Decoration, furniture, similar to P. occidentalis. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

800,000. 
Jlodulus of Rupture. 

7900. 

Remarks. 

Hough mentions* a tree twenty-nine feet seven inches in cir- 
cumference. 



■* "American Woods," Tart 6, p. 36. 



BIRCH. 

{Betula.) 

The birches grow in Europe, Asia, and North America, 
tlicir ranges on the latter continent extending far into tlie 
nortli.* Their history is remote and probably began with 
attention to the bark rather than to the wood. 

Rirch-bark is smooth, pliable, water-tight, and by reason 
of its resinous oils so durable that it often remains intact long 
after the wood inside of fallen trees has disappeared. It is 
separable into thin layers and was early employed as a writing 
material. 1" Houses have been covered by it and it has been 
used for cordage, utensils, "damp courses," and even rude 
clothing. The American Indians employed it for canoes, 
tents, troughs, and buckets. The wood is hard, heavy, 
strong, fine-grained, and beautiful. It shrinks in seasoning, 
works easily, stands well when not exposed. It is used for 
spools, woodenware, and other small articles, as well as for 
interior finish and cabinet work. Figured birch is one of the 
most beautiful of American cabinet woods, t Birch is often 
stained so as to imitate cherry and mahogany; the best imita- 
tions of the latter wood are of birch. Kirch is commercially 
divided, according to the quantity of heartwood present, into 
white birch and red birch. The wood is "white " when the 
amount is small, and as heartwood increases with age the 
same tree might at one time afford white and at another red 
wood. 

The paper birch {Betula papyrifcra) is the American svccies, 
most noted for its bark. This tree prefers the north and thrives 



* Bircli forms large forests in tVie North. 

t Plinv and Plutarch agree that the famous books of Numa Pompilius, written 
700 years before Christ, were upon birch-bark. 

t The banquet-hall of the famous Auditorium Hotel in Chicago is finished in 
birch. 

74 



I'LATK 14. I'.IKCII (/.><•»/,/). 



V'^nSBS 




Yellow Kirch Tree {B^/ii/a luh-a). White liirch Eark (/««/</ populifolia). 

Yelh)W Birch Foliage (Betula luted). Birch Wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO/tDLEAF IVOODS. 75 

at higher latitudes than other American broadleaf trees. It is 
easily recognizable by its white bark and is particularly beautiful 
during the winter because of contrasts that arc then more 
apparent. The bark of this species was preferred for canoes 
because of its pliability, and its availability in large i)ieces where 
it was most needed. The layers of other barks, as Betula 
populifolia, do not separate so easily from one another, nor do 
they divide so readily from the trunk. 

The yellow and sweet birches {Betula liilea and Brliila Icnta) 
are the American birches most prized for woods. The European 
birches often afford the cheapest hard-woods of their districts, 
and these woods are used for sabots, plates, spoons, wheels, 
pegs, buttons, and furniture. The Russians reduce birch logs 
into veneers, that are then glued across one another (see page 
125 so as to form thin planks ; the planks are used for tea chests, 
chair bottoms, and the like. Burls, that sometimes occur on 
trunks, afford figured woods that are turned into bowls, cups, or 
mallets. Europeans also use birch indirectly, as in tannin<j, 
smoking meat, etc. The bark and leaves of some species are 
widely esteemed as domestic remedies. Oils are separated by 
distillation.* The sweet sap drawn from some of the birches is 
nsed as a beverage. 

Birch trees may be known by their more or less laminated 
bark with its peculiar long horizontal lenticles or dashes. The 
leaves of the several birches differ but little, but the decided 
colors exhibited by their barks give names and serve to distin- 
guish the species. Nine of the twenty-four known species of 
birch occur in North America; six are trees and the others low 
shrubs. Betula is said to be derived from bitumen. 



* Wintergreen oil was formerly distilled from the leaves of the wintergreen, 
but almost all " natural oil " is now obtained from the sweet birch {Betula lenta). 
(Forestry and Irrigation, December, 1905). These oils and their manufactured 
products consist almost entirely of Methyl salicylate. 



76 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Birch, Betula popuH/olia Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Birch (local and com- Oldfield Birch, Poverty Bircb 

mon name). (]\Ie. ). 

Gray Birch (Me., R. 1., Poplar-leaved Birch, Small 
Mass.). White Birch (Vt.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Delaware. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty to forty feet in hciglit, rarely one foot in diameter. 
Durable, laminated, smooth, white bark on large branches 
and on trunk, save near ground ; is not very easily detached 
from tree. Tremulous leaves. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, not strong or durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Clothes-pins, shoe-pegs, tooth-picks, paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,036,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1 , 000. 

Remarks. 

The white bark is distinct from that of the paper birch in that 
it does not cover the whole trunk and in that it remains more 
perfectly intact. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLE^F IVOODS. 77 

Paper Birch, White Birch. Betula papyri/era Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudu orth. ) 

Paper Birch, White I5irch Boleau (Quebec). 

(local and common names). Canoe Birch (Me.,Vt., N. H., 
Silver Birch (:\Iinn.). R. I., Mass., N. Y., Pa., 

Large White Birch (Vt.). Wis., ;\Iich., Minn.). 

Locality. 

Northern United States, northward into Canada, valley of the 
Yukon in Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to two and 
one-half feet in diameter. Smooth white exterior bark on 
large limbs and trunks away from ground. Brown or orange 
inner surfaces of bark. Splits freely into thin paper-like 
layers. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. 
Very close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, hard, tough, not durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Spools, shoe-lasts, pegs, paper-pulp, fuel, bark used in canoes. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

37- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,850,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Starch is said to be manufactured from inner bark by Northern 
Indians. Reaches higher latitude than any American decid- 
uous tree. Forms forests. The name White Birch is because 
of the color of the bark. Used for pill boxes. One of the 
few woods that burn well while trreen. 



78 THH PRINCIPAL SPECIF.S OF t-VOOD. 

Red Birch. Beluhi nigra Litm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Birch (local and common Ala., Miss., Te.\., Mo., 

name). HI., Wis., Ohio). 

Black Birch (Fla., Tenn., Birch (N. C, .S. C, Mis.s., 

Te.x.). La.). 

River Birch (Mass., R. I.. Water Birch (W. Va., Kans.). 

N. J., Del., Pa., W. Va., Blue Birch (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Te.xas. Best development in south .\tlantic and lower 
Mississippi valley regions. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to eigthy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes larger. Dark red brown scaly bark on trunk. 
Red to silvery-white bark on branches. Bark separates in 
thin paper-like scales curling outward. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white. Close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, rather hard and strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, woodenware, shoe-lasts, ox-yokes, inferior cask- 
hoops from branches. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
Modulus of Flasticity. , 

1,580,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,100. 

Remarks. 

Dark brown bark, whence name Red Birch. Prefers moist 
bottoms, whence name River Birch. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— liRO.-tni.H.-U- IVOODS. 79 

Yellow Birch. Jlc/n/a lulca Michx. /. 

Nmnencliiturc. (Sudworth. ) 

Yellow Birch (local ami com- Swamii Birch (Minn.). 

mon name). Silver Birch (N. H.). 

Gray Birch (Vt., K. I., Pa., IMcrisicr, IMerisier Rouge 

IMich., ]\Iinn.). (Quebec). 

A'licrican Mahor;any. 

Locality. 

Newfountlland to Norlh Carolina, westward intermittently to 
Minneosta and Te.xa.s. J5est devckiiud north of the (Jreat 
Lakes. 

i''eatures of Tree. 

Si.xty to eighty feet or more in height, two to four feet in 
diameter. A medium-sized tree. Bark on trunk silvery gray 
to silvery yellow, branches green to lustrous or ilull brown. 
Bark exfoliates, causing a rough, ragged appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Ileartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure, satiny. 

Structural Q^ualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very strong, and hard, tough, susceptible of high {)olish. 
(.)ualities suggest those of maple. Not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, buttons, tassel-moulds, pill-boxes, spools, and 
wheel-hubs. Chair seats. 

\\'eight of .Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

40. 
Modulus of I'.lasticity. 

2, 290,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

17.700. 
Remarks. 

Occasional trees have thin outer bark ruptured, and exhibit 
inner bark of almost metallic yellow. Lutea, signifving 
yellow, alludes to color of bark. Inner bark has pungent, 
pleasant flavor. Burls, as frequently foum!, are valued for 
maki:i'' mallets. 



8o THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sweet Birch, Cherry Birch. Betuhi Icnta Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sweet Birch, Cherry Birch Mahogany Birch (N. C. , 

(many localities). S. C). 

Black Birch (N. H., Vt., River Birch (Minn.). 

Mass., v.. I., Conn., N. V., Mountain Mahogany (S. C. ). 

N. J., Pa., W. Va., Ga., 

111., Ind., Mich , Ohio). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland intermittently to Illinois, southward intermit- 
tently along AUeghanies to Kentucky, Tennessee, and 
Florida. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, dark 
reddish-brown bark, resembling that of cherry; does not 
separate into layers as paper-birch. Leaves, bark, and twigs 
sweet, spicy, and aromatic. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown tinged with red, sapwood light brown 
or yellow, close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very strong, hard, receives stains and high satin-like 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Woodenware, furniture, ship-building (Canada), fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

4 7- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,010,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 7, 000. 

Remarks. 

A common tree in Northern States. Wood often stained so as 
to resemble cherry and mahogany. Essences suggest winter- 
green, contain much salicylic acid, and are used in medicine. 
The name " cherry " is because bark resembles that of cherry. 
" Sweet " is because of essences. 



PLATE 15. LOCUST {Robinia. Ch-Jits. 




l;l,nk L.KU-l '\ 



LOCUST, MESQHITE. 

{Robiiiia, Gleditsia, Prosopis.) 

The name Locust applies to species of tliree distinct 
genera, all of which belong to the family Leguminosje. The 
black locust {Robiriia pscHdncaciti), the honey locust {Gleditsia 
triacantlios), and the Mesquite or honey locust {Prosopis jitli- 
flord) are principal representatives of their respective kinds. 
The first-named genus is North American, the other two have 
species on both continents. 

Black locust wood is tough, dur- 
able, unequalled for torsional strength 
and resilience, and is in every way in 
the first rank of American woods. It 
is fitted not only for exposed con- 
structions, but for finer articles ; hubs, 
pins, bolts, and trenails having no 
superiors. Trees develop rapidly 
when young, heart wood forming as 
early as the third year. Later growth 
and ultimate commercial value in the 
United States are much affected by 
insect borers, which practically limit 
the usefulness of the species. The 
black locust may be known by its 
clusters of large pea-blossom-shaped 
flowers, its bean-shaped pods, three 
to six inches in length, and by the ^^-^^"^ l^ocxj^-x (Rohinia pseud- 

^ ■' acacia). 

prickles on the bark. The genus has 

six species, four of which are natives of tlie United States.* 

Robinia is from Robin, the name of an early French botanist. 

* Three of the four United States species .ire trees ; the other species of this 
genus grow in Mexico. No one is appro.ximately as important or well known as 
the Black Locust. 

Si 




82 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Tlie black locust has been extensively introduced into Europe^ 
both for ornamentation and for wood.* 

The wood of the honey locust resembles that of the black 
locust, but is seldom used or appreciated save for fencing and 
similarly unimportant purposes. Trees grow rapidly and are 
not subject to the attacks of insects, so that they frequently 
attain to normal proportions. The flowers are much smaller 
than those of the black locust, but the pods are several times 
as long (twelve to eighteen inches). These often curl in 
drying and are thus rolled to some distance by the wind. 
Thorns or spines are present on some individuals and are often 
from three to six inches in length. The foliage resembles but 
is more delicate than that of the black locust. There i; 
at least one other American species. Gleditsia is from 
Gleditsch, the name of a botanist. 

The mesquite is to its native desert as bamboo is to 
China and Japan. Its normal form resembles that of the 
apple-tree, but it can survive entirely covered with sand, so that 
a1)i>\-e the surface, on!)' small shoots appear. Such instances 
suggested the expression that in Arizona we must " dig for 
wood and climb for water." Roots develop greatly in their 
search for water, and are dug up in the absence of other fuel. 
There are pods filled with rich pulp, from which Indians made 
bread, caice, and a fermented drink. The beans are now 
greatly valued as fodder. A black dye is made from the sap, 
and a good mucilage from the gum. The hard, heavy wood 
is seen in many native houses in New Mexico and Arizona; 
and is almost indestructible when exposed. Sixteen or more 
species belong to this genus, Prosopis, of which one other, 
the screw-pod mesquite [Prosopis odor at cx), is found in the 
United States. 

* Black locust was introduced into Europe early in the seventeenth century, 
being first cultivated by the son of Jean Robin, for whom the genus is named. 
Few American species have received such attention aboad. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 83 

Locust, Black Locust, Yellow Locust. Robima pseudacacia Linn. 
Nomenclature. (.Sudworth. ) 

Locust, Black Locust, Ycl- Red Locust, Green Li.cu.st 
low Locust (local and (Tenn.). 

common names). Ilonev Locust (Minn.). 

False .\cacia (S. C , Ala,, Tex., White Locust (R. I., N. Y., 

Minn.). Tenn.). 

Pea-flower Locust, Post Lo- Acacia (La.), 
cust (."\I.l.). 

Locality. 

Southern .\lleghany region, widely cultivated in United .'^tatcs 
east of Rocky ^Mountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet or over in 
diameter. Leaves curl or close at night. Long spikes or 
briers on young branches. 

Color, .^.ppearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, thin sapwood, light-greenish yellow. 
Close-gr;iined and compact. Annual layers clearly marked. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very hard, strong, and durable under extreme conditions 
of wet and dry. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Long wooden bolts or pins called treenails. Posts, tie.s, con- 
struction, turnery, ship-ribs, ornamentations, fuel. 
Weight of .Reasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
IModulus of Elasticity. 

1,830,000. 
IModulus of Rujiture. 

,18, 100. 
Remarks. 

Often a low shrub. Extensively planted, particularly in West, 
but subject to attack by borers. One of the most valuable 
of American timber trees. Heartwood is formed very early 
in this species. Pseudacacia means false acacia or imitation 
of acacia. 



84 THE PRINCIP.-IL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Honey Locust. Gleditsia Iriacanthos Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Honey Locust (local and com- Honey or Honeyshucks (R.I., 

mon name). N. J., Va. , Fla. , Iowa). 

Thorn or Thorny Locust Tree Honeyshucks Locust (Ky.). 

or Acacia (N. Y. , N. J., Sweet Locust (.S. C, La., 

Ind., Tenn., La.). Kans. , Nebr. ). 

Three-thorned Acacia (Mass., Piquant Amourette (La.). 

R. L, La., Te.\., Neb., Confederate Pintree (Fla. ). 

Mich.). Locust (Nebr.). 
Black L<^cust (!Miss., Tex., 

Ark., Kans., Neb.). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska 
and Te.xas. Best in lower Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet or more in height, two to four feet in 
diameter. Frequent long thorns.* Light thin foliage. 
Brown pods contain sweet pulp. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood bright brown or red, sapwood yellowish, annual 
layers strongly marked, coarse-grained, medullary rays con- 
spicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, very durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Fence-posts, rails, wagon-hubs, rough construction, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic F'oot. 

42. 

JModulus of Elasticity. 

1,540,000. 
INIodulus of Rujiture. 

13, 100. 

Remarks. 

^^'idely cultivated for landscape effect. Young trees used foi 
forming hedges. One of the hardiest trees for planting on the 
uplands of Western Kansas. C' Forestry an. I Irrigation," 
August, 1903.) 

* Thorns ])lenliful tin some imlividuals, but absent on othfrs. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLE.^E IVOODS 85 

Mesquite. Pro.w/.is Ju/ijloru {Sicarlz) de C. 

Nomenclature. (Siulwortii. ) 

Mesquite (Tex., N. M., Ariz., Honey Pod or Honey Locust 

Cal.). (Tex., N. M.). 

Algaroba (Tex., N. M., Ariz., Ironwood (Tex.). 

Cal.). 

Locality. 

Texas, west to San Rernardino Mountains, California. Also 
Colorado, Utah, and Nevada and northern ^Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Some- 
times low shrub. Roots often very large. I'ods with sweet 
pulp. Gums resemble gum arable. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich dark brown, often red. .Sapwood clear 
yellow. Close-grained, compact structure, distinct medullary 
rays. The heart resembles walnut. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Weak, difficult to work, heavy, hard, very durable, receives 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, fencing, ties, house-beams, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

4 7- 
Modulus of Ela.sticity. 

820,000. 
^Modulus of Rupture. 

6800. 
Remarks. 

A locally important tree. Trees sometimes stunted by fires 
have numerous roots. Large roots useu for fuel. The easily 
agitated foliage cools the air to a surprising degree. The 
" cool shade of the mesquite " is a characteristic phrase. Large 
roots must not be confounded with trunks that are also often 
covered with sand. Trees stunted by tires sometimes have very 
large sub-surface developments. Such roots are often dug up 
and used for fuel. The mesquite has been acclimated in Hawaii. 



Holsinger, " Forestry and Irrigation." Vol. VIII, No. 11, 



WHITEWOOD OR TULIP-TREE WOOD, POPLAR OR COTTONWOOD, 

(LirioJeiidron.) (Popii/iis. ) 



CUCUMBER-TREE WOOD, BASSWOOD. 

(Magnolia.) (Tilia.) 

These trees are not related, but are all noted for woods 
with soft, fine qualities, such as fit them for carvings, wooden- 
ware, and paper-pulp. No one of the woods is durable when 
exposed, and all are used for boxes because they nail without 
splitting. The names are commercially interchangeable. 

The whitewood or tulip tree {Liriodendron tiilipifcra) is a 
native of America and an acclimated tree in Europe. It is the 
sole surviving species of its genus. The wood is soft, stiff, 
clean, fine, straight-grained, and 
obtainable in large-sized pieces. 
Much whitewood is made into 
lumber, the wood standing among 
those of tlie broadleaf series as 
white pine does among the coni- 
fers. Whitewood is particularly 
suitable for carvings. In spite 
of its name it is largely greenish 
yellow. It is often divided com- 
mercially, according to color, into 
"white poplar" and " j-ellow poplar." Trunks often attain 
to a very large size. Matthews mentions a specimen * thirty- 
three feet in circumference. The species may be known by its 
large tulip-shaped flower. Liriodendron is from two Greek 
words meaning lily and tree. 

The poplars, sometimes called cottonwoods because of 
their seeds covered with a cotton-like down, are represented 
on both continents. The wood was made into shields by the 




/IK Hi [Liriodendron 
l,il,p,fc-ra). 



*F. Scluivler M.itthe 



(Appleton, I901), p. 39. 
86 



rLATK 10. WIUIKWOOU OR TL'l.lI' 'lKI';r: (r.,r:o,„;i.iro,t Uiupi/cra). 




EXOGENOUS SERIFS-BROAni.EAF IVOODS. 87 

ancients, because it was light and tough and would indent 
without breaking. The wood is often substituted for white- 
wood, but is less desirable, although valuable as a basis for 
paper-pulp. The trees may be known by the long drooping 
catkins that appear early in the spring before the leaves, and 
that are followed by white downy seeds that soon escape to 
whiten the surrounding ground. The poplars are noted for 
foliage more or less constantly in agitation. This peculiarity, 
so pronounced in the aspen (Popidus trenmloidcs), is due to 
the very long petioles or leaf-stems. The cottonwoods abound 
in many otherwise arid regions of American Western deserts. 
The balsam poplar {Popidus balsamijcra) which thrives far into 
the North, was said, by Sir John Franklin, to form much of the 
diift seen by him upon the shores of the Arctic Sea. The bal- 
sam poplar must not be confused with the true balsam, Abies 
balsamea (pp. 162-163), although both are called Balm of 
Gilead. Sudworth enumerates twelve distinct species of the 
genus Populus that grow in the United States. 

The cucumber trees are of the magnolia family and grow 
in many of the Eastern States. The wood resembles and is 
probably often mistaken for whitewood, for which it is a fair 
substitute. The trees may be known by their fruit, which 
resembles vegetable cucumbers. Magnolia is from Magnol, a 
botanist of the seventeenth century. 

Basswood is a name applied to trees known in Europe and 
America as limes, lime trees, lind, linden, tiel, tiel trees, 
bass, and basswood trees. The trees and their wood were 
early esteemed, the first for their shade and appearance, and 
the last for their working qualities, which resemble, but are 
inferior to, whitewood.* The trees are characterized by their 
dense foliage and clusters of small cream-colored fragrant 
flowers, so attractive to bees as to have originated the further 
name bee-tree. Tilia arises from the ancient name for these 
trees. 

* The carvings of Gibbons, a famous English artist, are said to have been made 
entirely of linden, no other available wood being so even-grained and free from 
knots. 



88 THE PRINCIP/IL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yellow Poplar. Liriodendmn luUpi/era l.inv. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yel- Hickory Poplar (Va. , W. Va., 

low Poplar (local and com- N. C. ). 

mon names). Blue Poplar (Del., \V. \'a. ). 

Poplar (R. I., Del., N. C, Popple (R. I.). 

S. C, Fla., Ohio). Cucumber Tree (N. Y.). 

Tulip Poplar (Del., Pa., S. C, Canoewood (Tenn.). 

111.). 

Locality. 

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan 
and Mississippi. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in height, six to twelve feet 
in diameter. Tulip-shaped flowers in spring. Greenish 
cones dry and remain after leaves have fallen. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, thin sapwood, 
nearly white. Close, straight-grained, compact structure, free 
from knots. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, easily worked, durable. 
Hard to split, shrinks little, resembles white pine, stands well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, interior finish, shingles, boat-building, pumps, wooden- 
ware, shelves, the bottoms of drawers. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

26. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Very large trees formerly common. Indians hollowed logs into 
boats. " Some large enough to carry twenty or thirty 
persons" (Hough), whence name canoewood. Tulipifera, 
signifying turbans and to bear, refers to flowers. One of the 
largest as well as most useful of American deciduous trees. 



f-XOGf^NOUS SF.RlF.S—BROAnLF.AH IVOODS. 89 

Poplar, Largetooth Aspen. I'opulus grand iJenlalu Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Suclu'ortli.) 

I'oplar, Largetooth Aspen White Poplar (Mass.). 

(local and common names). Popple (I\le. ). 

Largetooth Pophir (N. C). Large American As[)cn (Ala. ). 

Large Pojjlar ('i'enn.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia and Delaware, westward intcrniittentl_y to Minne- 
sota, Alleghany Mountains to Kentucky and Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet high, two feet or more in diameter. Irreg- 
ular points or teeth on margins of leaves. Smooth gray bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Soft, light, weak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Paper-pulp and occasionally woodenware. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. . 

1,360,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 

The several "poplars" are much prized for paper-pulp. The 
quaking aspen {P. /remu/oidcs) has long leaf-stalks llattened 
vertically to the leaf-surface, so that leaves tremble in slight 
winds, a characteristic ])eculiar throughout of the genus 
Poiuilns. 



Ailanlhus i:\ilanthus (/landuloxa). This sturdy, beautiful, vcrv quick- 
growing, but shorllivcci tree was once popular in ihis country, particulatiy in 
ciiy landscapes, but it was discarded because of the disagreeable, far reaching 
odor of its flowers. The tree has many merits and an odorless variety is 
fortunately available. The wood is used for wooden ware and charcoal in Europe 
and in China where certain silk worms feed upan the leaves. The Chmcse call 
the Aihnlhus the " tree of Heaven." American specimens have grown in excess 
of ten feet in length during ihe first vear. 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



Cottonwood. ] pj" 



/us dcltoides Marsh, 
ipulus momlifera Ait. 



Nomenclature. (Sudwoitli.) 

Cottonwood (local and com- Big Cottonwood (Miss., Neb.). 

mon name). Whitewood (ia. ). 

Carolina Poplar (Pa., jVIiss. , Cotton Tree (N. Y.). 

La., N. M., Ind., Ohio). Necklace Poplar (Tex., Col.). 

Yellow Cottonwood (Ark., Broadleaved Cottonwood 

la., Neb.). (Colo.). 

Locality. 

Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to Rocky Moun- 
tains. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, four to five feet in 
diameter, occasionally much larger. Long catkins di.stribute 
cotton -like fibres. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood, dark brown, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, weak, liable to warp, difficult to season. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Greatly valued in manufacture of paper-pulp, also packing- 
boxes, fence-boards, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

24. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,400,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,900. 

Remarks. 

Monilifera is from the Latin monolinum. a necklace, and /era, 
to bear, and refers to the long necklace or catkin. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO/I OLE AF IVOODS. 91 

Black Cottonwood. J'<i/>nlus Irk/wcarpa J'orr. and Gr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Black Cottonwood (Oreg., Cottonwood (Orcg , Cal.). 

Cal.). Balm Cottonwood (Cal.). 

Balsam Cottonwood, Balm 
(Orcg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast region, Alaska to California. 

Features of Tree. 

A large tree sometimes one fiundrcd and fifty feet in height and 
four to six feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light dull brown, sapwood nearly white, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, weak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Staves, woodenware (local). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

23- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Largest deciduous tree of Puget Sound district (Sargent). 

The Cottonwood, Tacmahac, Balsam, Balsampoplar, or Balm of 
Gilead {Pojndus balsamifera) grows from Hudson Bay and Alaska 
south to Oregon and New England. It is a large upright tree, some- 
times five or more feet in diameter. It is distinctly a northern species. 
It has whitish trunk, drooping catkins and other poplar characteristics. 
The very light, soft, white wood has been used in paper making. 
The gummy exudations on the twigs of this and related species have 
been substituted for other medicinal balsams. The Balm of Gilead 
{Populus balsamifera candicans) is cultivated in New England. 



Professor Bessey believes that cottonwooil limber culture would be remunera- 
tive in manv parts of the middle west even for fuel. Cottonvvoods have attained 
to sizes large enough for saw logs in twenty years. (Pinchot, U. S. Forestry 
Circular No. 27). 



g2 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cucumber Tree. Magnolia acumwa/a Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Cucumber Tree (R. L, Mass., Mountain ^Magnolia (Miss., Ky.). 
N. Y., Pa., N. C, S. C, lilack Lin, Cucumber (W. \'a.). 
Ala., Miss., La., Ark., Kv., Magnolia (Ark.). 
W. Va., Ohio, Ind., 111.). 

Locality. 

New York to Illinois, southward through Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee to Ciulf (intermittently). 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to- occasionally one hundred feet in height, two to four 
feet in diameter. A large, handsome, symmetrical tree, with 
cones resembling cucumbers. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish yellow, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure. -Satiny, thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Qualities similar to white- 
wood. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, cheap furniture, flooring, pump-logs, troughs, 
crates, packing-bo.xes. Ll^sed similarly to L. tulipifera. 

Weight of Seasoned \\'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,310,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

. 9500- 
Remarks. 

Wood resembles and is often sold for tulip-tree wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES BROAPLE.^E IVOODS. 9;, 

Basswood, Linn, Linden, /'i/ia american,! Lmn. 

NoiiKiK'laUirL-. (Siulwortli.) 

Hasswood, I.inn, l.iiuleii, W'liitcsvood (^'t., W. Va. , Ark., 

American I^iiidcn (lucal Minn). 

and common naniiis), ^■(:lluw Hasswood, i.cin (Ind.). 

Limctrcc (R. I., X. C, S. C, Ik-Ltrtt- (\'t.. W . \'a , Wi-.j. 

Ala., Minn., l.a., III.). White I.ind (W. \a.). 

Black or Stnooth-lcavL-d l.inic- W'uku]) (.Mass.). 

tree (I'enn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Ocorgia, westward iimrniittL-ntl}- to Xcl)raska 
and 'JV-.\as. Wide ranj^c. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to ninety feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, 
occasionally larger. Large smooth leaves. 

Color, Apjjearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light or reddish brown, thick sapwood nearly 
similar, very straight anil clo.se-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, easily worked, tough, not strong nor durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Sides and backs of drawers, bodies of carriages, woodenware, 
paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned \\'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
INIodulus of Elasticity. 

1, 190,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8 3 GO. 
Remarks. 

Basswood refers to the inner bark or " bast," sometimes utilized 
for cordage. The flowers attract bees, whence the name bee- 
tree. White Basswood, ( Tilia helerophylla, ) is not distinguished 
commercially. 



WILLOW. 

(Salix.) 

The willows are distributed over both continents. The 
ancients used willow wood for shields, because it would indent 
without breaking. Pliny writes that Brittons made voyages in 
boats of willow. The principal experience with the tough, light, 
workable, clastic wood has been in Europe, where it has been 
used for lapboards, cricket bats, keels, paddles, and water 
wheels. It resists splintering, heating and friction, and has been 
used for lining friction brakes and wagons. The charcoal ignites 
readily and is esteemed for finer kinds of gun-powder. 

In America, willows are associated with the qualities of 
pliability and water endurance. Trees and saplings, rather than 
lumber, figure in American constructions. Trees are planted to 
protect and sometimes by eddies to recover land from water 
encroachment. Saplings up to three or four inches in diameter 
are made into matresses to prevent scour in Mississippi River 
improvement work. Some of these mattresses are three hundred 
feet wide and one thousand feet long.* Willow rods, whole or 
split, are used in basket making. Sap-peeled rods retain their 
white color, while steamed willows turn yellow.f Saplings are 
often known as osiers, and the term osier willow is often applied 
to any species that afford strong, slender shoots. The true osier, 
sandbar or Ion gleaf willow {Salix fluviatilis) is widely distributed 
from the Arctic Circle southward into Mexico. Osiers are 
regularly cultivated in Europe.J Wilorts grow very rapidly and 
have a characteristic and attractive appearance. The White, 
Crack, Bedford, and Goat Willows {Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. 
russeliana, and S. caprea) are said to afford good woods. 

* Starling & Coppee, Papers Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Correspondence Mr. 
Chas. Hunter West, M. Am. Soc. C. E , Chf. Eng'r., Miss, Levee Dist., 
Greenville, Miss. 

t Correspondence, Chas. Zinn & Co., New York City. 

I The Basket Willow, U. S. For. Bui. No. 46. 

About 140 species and varieties of the willow family have been enumerated. 

94 



PLATE 17. \\ll.l,0v\ [SalU). 




Black willow foliage {Salix nigra). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- BRO/tDI.EAF H^OODS. 95 

Black Willow. Salix in[i;ra Marsh. 

Nimieiichitiirc. (SuJworth. ) 

J51ack. Willow (local and com- Willow (N. Y., Pa., N. C, 

mon name). S. C, Miss., 'I'e.x. , Cal., 

Swamp Willow (N. C, S. C). Ky., :Mo., Neb.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to T'lorida, westward intermittently to Dakota, 
Arizona, antl Califurnia, .Mexico. 

Features of 'I'ree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. Long 
narrow leaf, characteristic appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, weak, checks badly in drying, readily worked. 
Dents without splitting. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lap-boards, basket-making, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

27. 
Modulus of F.Ia.siicity. 

550,000. 
Modulus of Kupture. 

6000. 

Remarks. 

Prefers borders of rivers and bottom lands. Many varieties of 
willow grow in the United States. No one is used to any 
extent in construction. There are so many hybrids and peculiar 
species of willow that classification is often difficult (about one 
hundred and forty species and varieties of the willow family 
have been enumerated). Salix is said to be from the Celtic 
Sal, meaning "near," and lis, meaning "water." Salicvlic 
acid is present in the bark of some species. 



White Willow (Salix alba), naturalized in .America, is very hardv 
•even in dry places. A valuable prairie wind-brake. Trees planted 
several feet apart from good posts to support barbed wire. European 
uses of the wood have been referred to. .Salix alba has many 
botanical varieties. 



CATALPA. 
{Catalpa.) 

Many kinds of wood that were formerly plentiful are now 
much less so. Attention is being turned to trees that give 
best results under artificial conditions. Catalpa, formerly but 
little known, now bids fair to become of some importance in 
this connection. The tree is one of which excellent results can 
be expected when the right conditions prevail. The Hardy 
Catalpa {Catalpa speciosa) is most desirable. 

Catalpa trees grow readily and are often used in land- 
scape effects. The trees may be planted along streams, since 
they are not seriously injured by occasional inundations. 
The soft, weak, brittle, smooth wood works well, and is fitted 
for many constructions. It is very durable and attractive. 
Catalpa wood can be used in indoor finish. Trees are 
being planted by railways, although some question exists 
as to whether ties will stand sufficiently under heavy traffic. 
Mr. John Brown* mentions specimens sixteen inches in 
diameter seventeen years after planting. Numerous examples 
could be given of an awakened interest in this species. The 
soft wood may require plates to resist cutting when in ties 
under heavy traffic, but no uncertainty exists as to durability. 
Sufficient tests have placed it in the front rank as resisting 
decay. Prof, von Schrenk states that final disintegration of 
weathered wood will not be due to the usual fungus causes, 
since no single fungus has yet been found to grow in the dead 
timber. The limited supply has restricted use. No wood is 
better for postc and poles. 

* The Forester, October, 1900, and November, 1902. 
Kansas Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bulletin 108. 
Forestry Quarterli/, Vol. Ill, N. Y. 

96 



PLATE 18. CATiVLPA (Calalpa). 




Young CaUlp.i Ticc {Lutulpu catalpa), 
Delaware County, New York. 



Catalpa Tree ( Catnip,! spcdosa), 
Wilsey, Kansas. 




Catalpa. V\. B.J ^ Catalpa speciosa). Spec 



Mi. L,'-o. W. Tinclicr, Wilsey, 



EXOCRNOUS SF.Rll:S-liRO/1Dl.i:^h' IVOODS. ()~ 

Catalpa, Hardy Catalpa. Catalpa spixiosa Warder. 

Ni)iiu-nclaturc. (Siulwortb. ) 

Catalpa (R. I., N. V., La., Western Catalpa (Pa., Ohio, 

HI., hid., I\li)., Wis., la., Kans., Neb., 111.). 

Neb., Minn.). Cigar Tree (Mo., la.). 

HardvCatalpa(lll., la., Kan., Indian Bean, Shawneewood 

Mich.). (Ind.). 

Bois I'uant (La.). 

Locality. 

Central Mississippi valley, naturalized in many localities. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to sixty feet or more in height, three to six feet in 
diameter; well-formed trunks. Large, white, faintly mottled 
flower, long pod or bean. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of \\'ood. 

Thick heartwood brown, thin sapwood lighter, nearly white, 
coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly 
marked. An attractive wood. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. 

Representative L'ses of Wood. 

Railway ties, fence-posts, rails, adapted for cabinet-work and 
interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1, 160,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 
9000. 

Remarks. 

Hardier and better formed trunks than afforded by C. catalpa. 
A rapid grower: sprouts vigorously from stumps. A valuable 
tree, promi.sing to become better know^n. Foliage subject to 
attack by insects. 

" Hardy Catalpa." Hall and von Schrcnk. United States Forestry Bureau, 
Bulletin No. 37. 



Paulownia (^Pauhwnia lomentosa). This tree is of small importance. A 
native of Asia, it is now cultivated in central Atlantic and Southern State land- 
scapes. It has catalpa-like leaves preceded by large pale blue or violet flowers. 
The persistent, woody, capsule-like fruit suggest hickory nuts. Tlie species is not 
related to but is someiimes confused with catalpa. 



98 THE PRINCIP/IL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Patalnfl ^ Caialpa calalpa (Lmn.) Karst. 

' i Calalpa bignonioidcs Walt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Catalpa (local and common Indian Bean (Mass., R. I., N. Y., 

name). N. J., Pa., N. C, 111.). 

Indian Cigar Tree (Pa.). Catawba, Catawba Tree (Del., 

Smoking Bean (R. I.). W. Va., Ala., Fla., Kans.). 

Cigar Tree (R. I., N. J., Pa., Bean Tree (N. J., Del., Pa., Va., 

W. Va., l\Io., 111.," Wis., La., Neb.). 

la.). 

Locality. 

Naturalized in many localities east of Rocky Mountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to two or more feet in 
diameter. Trunks not well formed. A low, wide tree, large 
heart-shaped leaves, characteristic flower. Long slender pod 
or bean. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heart wood is light pink brown; thin sapwood is nearly 
white. Coarse-grained, compact. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Fence-posts, railway ties, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

S300. 

Remarks. 

Grows rapidly. Pods remain on tree after leaves fall. Some- 
times used as cigars by children. Wood is less desirable than 
C. speciosa. 



PLATE ly. SASSAFRAS {S.usajras officinale). 




SASSAFRAS. MULBERRY. 

(Sassafras.) (Monis.) 

The sassafras was one of the first American trees to he 
described in Europe, where many fictitious properties were 
early credited to its aromatic essences. The wood is not dis- 
tinguished by unusual qualities, but trees are cut for lumber as 
encountered with other and more valuable species in the forest. 
The mucilaginous lea\es are of three separate shapes. Some 
have lobes on both sides of the central surface, others have 
one lobe at one side so as to resemble mittens, while yet 
others on the same branch have simple oval shapes. The 
dark-blue berries on bright-red stems are so eagerly devoured 
by birds as to be seldom seen. The characteristic flavor is 
most pronounced in the bark of the root. 

The Red, White, and Black Mulberries are named from 
the color of their fruits. The former, which is the American 
species, has wood resembling that of the sassafras, only in that 
it is not distinguished by unusual qualities. Its leaves, like 
that of the sassafras, are of several shapes on the same tree. 
The very sweet fruit resembles blackberries in form. The 
leaves used in silkworm-culture are from the Russian mulberry, 
a cross between the white mulberry and black mulberry (M. 
alba and M. nigra). 

The camphor tree (Cinnamomuin camphora) is related to the sassafras. It 
has been acclimated in California and from Charleston to Florida on the Atlantic. 
In Asia, where the tree is native, it is the chief source of commercial camphor, 
but in this country and in some others, trees, while thrifty, do not appear to secrete 
the same quantities of camphor. The camphor tree is principally valued in the 
United States for its apjiearance. The beautiful trees with their shining, ever- 
green leaves are good to plant along sidewalks. The close-grained, aromatic, 
yellowish wood is used in cabinet work and insect-proof chests. The leaves have 
the odor of camphor which is however more widely diffused through the wood. 
Twenty to fifty pounds of wood yield one pound of gum. The roots of the 
Cinnamon tree (Ciiinamo7»um zcylanicum) contain camphor (India and Ceylon) ; 
this is in addition to the uses of the bark as spice. The Cassia bark (Cinnamo- 
mum cassia) affords cassia (Burmah and China) but no camphor. These last 
two trees are sometimes seen in California, Florida and other Gulf States. 
Also see Dewey, U. S. Div. Botany, Circular No. 12, Revised, etc. 

99 



ICO THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

„ , ( Sassafras officinale Xecs ami Eberni. 

( Sassafras sassafras i^Liiin.) Karsi. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Sassafras (local and common Sassafac, Sassafrac (W. Va., 

name). Del.). 

Saxifrax, Sasifrax Tree (Fla., Gumbo file (La., negro). 

Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Vermont to Florida, westward intermittently to IVIichigan and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes larger, often low shrub, characteristic odor and 
leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood, delicate brown, thin sapwood j'ellowish 
white, coarse-grained, annual rings clearly niarketl. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, brittle, checks in drying, very durable 
in contact with soil. Slightly aromatic. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Pails, buckets, ox-yokes, fence-posts, and rails. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

31- 
IVIodulus of Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8500. 

Remarks. 

Leaves and shoots mucilaginous. Bark of root rich in highly 
aromatic essences. Sassafras often forms thickets. There is a 
reddish appearance in the furrows of tlie thick bark that is on 
the trunk and larger .branches. Monardes, a Spanish writer, 
described the sassafras about half a century after the landing 
of Columbus. 



EXOGENOUS SEKlFS—BKO/IDLE^Ih li-'OODS. loi 

Red Mulberry, Mulberry. .Iforus nihra Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Mulberry, Mulberry (local Virginia Mulberry Tree (Tenn. ). 

and common name). ;\lurier Sauvage (La.). 

Black .Mulberry (N. J., Pa., 

W. Va.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska 
and Texas. Best in lower Ohio ami Mississipjji River basins. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to sixty feet in height, two and one half to three feet in 
diameter. Sweet edible fruit. Dark brown broken bark, 
smooth gray branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wootl. 

Thick hearcwood, light orange yellow, thin sapwood whitish, 
coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly 
marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, very durable in contact with soil, 
receives good polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Local ship-building, agricultural implements, fencing, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

11,700,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,000. 

Remarks. 

An ornamental tree. The leaves of this species are not adapted 
to silkworm culture. (See .\nnual Report, Chief U. S. Forestry 
Division, 1887; also Bulletins on Silk, published by the U. S. 
Department of Asiriculture.) 



BUCKEYE. HORSE CHESTNUT. 

{^senilis. ) 

The buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same 
genus. The common horse chestnut {^senilis hippocastanunt) 
was once thought to have been a native of Asia, but it is 
now quite certain that it originated on the mountains of 
northern Greece. Trees have been cultivated in Europe for 
at least three centuries and are now extensively grown over 

the United States. The 
name bucke}c is generally 
applied to such species as are 
natives of North America. 

The woods resemble one 
another in that they are 
soft, straight-grained, easily 
worked, and decay rapidly 
when exposed. They are 
employed to some extent in 
woodenware, artificial limbs, 
and paper-making. The trees 
ma}- be known by their round 
prickly pods, containing 
smooth chestnut-colored bitter nuts. The leaves of the buckeye 
are arranged in groups of five, while those of the horse chestnut 
are in groups of seven. The horse chestnut produces showy 
spotted flowers. There are thirteen species of this genus, eight 
of which are North American. The name "horse chestnut" 
may refer ironically to the coarse nuts, or may arise from the 
fact that they are occasionally eaten by cattle, or from a horse- 
shoe marking seen on youpg twigs. Hippocastamnti is from 
hippos, a horse, and castanea, a chestnut. The name buckeye 
refers to the appearance of the brown nut through the paler 
husk partly separated when ripe, suggesting the eye of the 
•conimon deer. 

102 




ri.ATE 20. IlORSl", CnVS'Y'SW {.Ksainis ^iiff'acastnnum). 




EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLE/lh IVOODS. 103 

Ohio Buckeye, Fetid Buckeye. ^Esculus glabra WUld. 
Noniciiclaturc. (Sud worth.) 

Buckeye, Ohio Buckeye (local Stinking Buckeye (Ala., Ark.). 

and common names). American Horse Chestnut (Pa.). 

Fetid Buckeye (W. Va.). 

Locality. 

Ohio River basin to Alabama, portions of Iowa, Kansas, and 
. Indian Territory. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-live to forty-five feet in height. One to one and one- 
half feet in diameter. Yellowush-white flower, succeeded by 
round prickly pod or fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Ikartwood white, sapwood a little darker, close-grained, fre- 
quent dark lines of decay. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Weak, light, soft, hard to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Artificial limbs, woodenware, paper-pulp, rarely lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

910,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7000. 
Remarks. 



The nearly similar horse chestnut (^f. hippncastaniim) is fortv to 
fifty feet or more in height and two to four feet in diameter. The 
light, weak wood is seldom used. The name horse may be applied to 
the coarse nuts ironically, or may refer to their occasional use by 
cattle, or a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. 



104 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF iVOOD. 

_, , o 1. T. 1 \ /Esculus octandra Marsh. 

Buckeye, Sweet Buckeye. -} ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^., 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Buckeye (N. C, S. C, Ala., Yellow Buckeye (S. C, Ala.). 

Miss., La., Tex., Ky.). Large Buckeye, Big Buckeye 

Sweet Buckeye (W. Va., (Tex., Tenn. ). 

Miss., Tex., Mo., Ind.). 

Locality. 

Alleghany Mountains, Pennsylvania to Georgia, westward inter- 
mittently to Iowa and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes low shrub. Large mahogany-colored seed. 

Color, Appearance, and Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood, creamy white, sapwood similar, compact structure, 
close-grained, difficult to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of Ohio Buckeye [A. gUrbra). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
26.64. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 



The California Buckeye {Msculus californka) or horse chestnut, 
which grows along the Pacific Coast from Mount Shasta to Los 
Angeles, is often quite small, but is sometimes, as to the north of San 
Francisco, a beautiful tree of thirty or forty feet in height and two or 
three feet in diameter. The soft, light, compact, close grained wood 
could probably be employed in turnery. Sap woods and heartwoods 
are of an even, ivory white color. 



PLATE 21. SWKET GUM [Liqmdamhar slyraciflua). 




GUM. 

{L'lquidambar, Nyssa.) 

The wood known as gum is afforded in the United States by 
three trees of two genera: Sweet or Red Gum {Liquidamber styra- 
ciflua), Sour or Black Gum {Nyssa silvatica) and Tupelo Gum 
[Nyssa aquatica). Gum woods were once of slight importance. 

The woods afforded by trees of these two genera are distinct 
from one another, although both are referred to by the one 
name, gum. The softer Sweet Gum figures in carpentry. 
Selected pieces so resemble black walnut as to be cut into 
veneers and made up into furniture. Sour Gum is harder, it 
splits with difficulty, and is fitted for small work and imple- 
ments, such as wagon-hubs and tool-handles. Both woods 
are close- and often cross-grained, besides being strong, heavy, 
tough, and difficult to season. 

The Sweet Gum tree is characterized by rough, round balls, 
resembling those of the sycamore, by pointed star-like leaves, 
suggesting those of the sugar 
maple, and by corky ridges 
on the bark of }-ounger 
branches. Tliese latter 
cause the bark to resemble 
alligator-skin and give rise 
to the name alligator-wood. 
Liquidatnbar refers to gums 
excreted by the tree and 

sometimes used in medicine. Sweet Gum {Liquidambar slyraajlua). 

The Sour Gum bears ovoid bluish-black sour drupes, or fruit 
containing single roughened seeds. The thick oval leaves are 
dark green above and dull or hair\- below. The foliage of 
both species becomes brilliant in autumn. 

105 




io6 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sweet Gum. Liqwdambar siyractjlua Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sweet Gum (local and com- Red Gum (Va., Ala., Miss., 

mon name). Te.x., La.). 

Liquidambar (R. I., N. Y., Gum, Gum Tree (V^a., S. C., 

Del., N. J., Pa., La., Te.x., La.). 

Ohio, 111.). Alligaiorwood, Blisted(N. J.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Illinois and 
Texas, Mexico. Greatest development in basin of Mississippi 
River. 

Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet 
in diameter. Tall straight trunk, corky ridges frequent on 
branches. Star-shaped leaves turn to brilliant scarlet in 
autumn, round balls on long stems. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown suggesting black walnut, sapwood 
nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, rather soft, strong, stiff, durable when exposed ,t shrinks 
and warps badly in seasoning, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Veneers, cabinet-work, substitute for black walnut, shingles, clap- 
boards, paving-blocks, wooden plates, carpentry, boxes, staves. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
37 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
36. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,700,000 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
!, 220,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

9500 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
9200. 

Remarks. 

Wood sometimes commercially known as satin walnut and 
sometimes as star-leaved gum. Large specimens often have 
hollow butts. Clear wood is obtained in large boards. The 
wood is tasteless and is use 1 fdr Ijarrels. 

* See page 8. 

t E. C. Woodward, C. E., Division Engineer Texas & Pacific Ry., reports 
"gum " ties good after 5 years' ser\icc. They hold spikes well. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES' UROADLF.AF IVOODS. 107 

Sour Gum, Black Gum, Tupelo. Xyssa sylvatka Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Sour Gum, Black Gum, Tu- Wild Pear Tree, Yellow Gum 

pelo (local and common Tree(Tcnn.). 

names). Gum (Md.). 

Pepperidge (Vt. , Mass., R. I., Stiiikwood (W. Va.). 

N. Y., N. J., S. C, Tenn., Tupelo Gum (Fla.). 

Mich., Ohio, Ontario). 

Locality. 

Maine to Florida, westward intermittent!}- to Michigan and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to one hundred feet high, one and si,\ inches to occa- 
sionally four feet in diameter. Ovoid, bluish-black, sour 
fruit, with seed. Horizontal branches, short spur-like lateral 
branchlets. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or yellow, often nearly white, sapwood 
hardly distinguishable, fine grain. Interwoven fibres. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, not hard, fibres interlaced, therefore hard to work, 
strong, tough, checks unless carefully seasoned, not durable 
in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Wagon-hubs, rollers, ox-yokes, bowls, and woodenware. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39- ;^ 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 160,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,800. 

Remarks. 

Limited usefulness because difficult to work. Larger specimen 
in South. Large trees often hollow at butts and sometimes 
higher. Grows on hillsides and the borders of swamps or 
waterways. 



ic8 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cotton Gum, Tupele Gum, Large Tupelo. Nyssa aquatica Li?in. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Cotton Gum, Tupelo Gum, Tupelo, Swamp Tupelo (N.C., 

Large Tupelo (local and S. C, La.). 

common names). ' Olivetree, Wild 01i\etree 

Sour Gum (Ark., Mo.). (?kliss.. La.). 

Locality. 

Virginia and Kentucky, southward. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet high, two to three feet in diameter. Blue 
oblong fruit one inch or more m length. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, often nearly white, sapwood nearly 
the same. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, not strong, soft, compact, difticult to work, not durable 
when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Turnery, woodenware, roots used as net-floats instead of corks. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

730,000. 
INIodulus of Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Butts of large trees are usually hollow. Parts above are usually 
sound. The light, strong, cheap wood is used in box making. 
The trees are found on rich bottom lands 'and in deep swamps, 
often associated with cypress. Aquatica refers to the fact that 
the tree tolerates quantities of water. 



The Sour Gum (Nyssa ogeche) grows on wet lands along the 
Atlantic coast from South Carolina to Northern and Western Florida. 
Trees attain heights of thirty to fifty feet. The soft, compact, weak, 
brownish heartwood is hardly distinguishable from the brownish 
sapwood. The tree is also known as Ogeechee Lime, Wild Limetree, 
Limetree, Tupelo, Sour Tupelo and Gopher Plum. 



PLATE 23. HOLLY, BOXWOOD, LIGNUMVIT.ii (//«, Buxus, etc.). 







0^ 


J^ 


"^ ''" 




-M 


'- ^ 


r "J^^^lt 


.i^jgaHMHUKsi 


Ig 


^ 





P^aiiM » SaiiLL,U -L-;- 




Box Tree {Buxus sempeynirens). 
Holly Foliage (Ilex opaca), 
Lignumvita: Foliage (G. sanctum'). 



Dogwood P'oliage (Cormis Jlorida). 
Dogwood Bark (Cornus Jlorida), 
Dogwood Wood. 

LiguumvitEe Wood. 



HOLLY. BOXWOOD. LIGNUMVITiE. 

(Ilex.) {Buxiis. (.oniiii. etc.) {Guajacum.) 

The woods alTordcd by these trees are all demanded in 
small and \cr\' perfect pieces to fill needs for which no others 
appear to he [icrfectly fitted. The holl)- {Jlcx) grows in 
Europe and America, where the brilliant exergreen foliage 
and red berries have long been associated with the Christmas 
season. The name holly is probablj' a subversion of ' ' Holy. ' ' * 
The true boxwood {Bnx?is scDipcrvirciis) attains to some size in 
Europe and Asia, but remains a small shrub in America, where 
it is seldom if ever cut for wood, but is placed as a decoration 
along the borders of walks and gardens. The wood called 
"boxwood" in America is not therefore deri\'ed from the 
" box." The Lignumvita;s grow in Florida, the West Indies, 
and on the northern coast of South America. 

Holl\'-wood is noted for its fine, even grain, but chiefly for 
its smooth, ivory-white color, fitting it for the white of inlaid 
work, for carvings and other decorations \\here white color and 
fine qualities are required. The principal European source is 
the Ilex aquifolium, x\hile in America it is the Ilex opaca. 
Inlaid work requires a design drawn or stencilled upon a thin 
sheet of light colored wood such as holly. This sheet is fast- 
ened over a si.r.ilar one of darker wood and a sharp knif ■ 
passed over the design cuts through both sheets alike. The 
figures of the lighter tinted wood are inserted within the spaces 
vacated by the corresponding figures of darker wood and vice 
versa. The sheet with insertions is then glued upon a " core " 
of seasoned wood as in the preparation of ordinary veneered 
work. (Sec pp. 75, 121.) Boxwood is, as stated, the name applied 
to several woods, all noted for their fine compact structure, ren- 
dering them suitable for very fine carvings such as are required 
in wood-engraving. The Eastern product as cut from the true 
box is so highly prized as to be sold by the pound. ^lany of 

* " The- German name Christdom, the Danish nameChristorn, and the Swed.'sh 
name Christtom seem to justify this conjecture." 

log 



no THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

the best pieces, of true boxwood in billets three to twelve inches 
across, are from Circassia and Odessa. It is hard to season 
boxwood so that it will not crack. Eastern turners are said to 
place it in dark cellars for several years before use. Boxwood 
is valued for mathematical instruments, and no other wood has 
ever proved so successful for fine engravings. American sub- 
stitutes are coarser. American boxwood is chiefly derived from 
the Flowering Dogwood; the Mexican Persimmon, and the Rose 
Bay. In Australia several species of Eucalyptus are said to be 
used. Lignumvitae is noted for great strength and hardness. 
Layers of fibres alternately cross one another so that the wood 
may be said to crumble rather than split. It has no superior 
for implements that must be fine, true, and strong, such as the 
sheaves of pulleys and handles of tools. The supply is obtained 
from two species {Guajacum sanctum and Gnajacum officinale). 

Holly may be known by its foliage and berries. Box 
{Buxus) has small, smooth, ovate, dark, evergreen leaves 
joining the stem so as to be opposite one another. The Dogwood 
is known by its flowers; the Lignumvitce is a low gnarled tree. 

Lignumvitae ties, so hard that "holes must be bored for 
spikes," have resisted thirty or forty years service on the 
Panama Railway. These ties were finally removed because 
they had rubbed against the road covering until they were 
round, and also because some of them had from the first, been 
too small to afford proper bearing for the rails, but the wood 
had not rotted, even in that moist, hot district, nor had the 
rails cut far into the ties.* It is said that Lignumvitas was 
introduced into Europe shortly after the discovery of America: 
it became noted for medicinal properties that are yet recognized, 
although of doubtful real value. A resin called Guajac or 
Guaiac, obtained by tapping trees or else warming billets of 
wood from perforations in which melted resins flow, has been 
employed, in tincture, as a reagent, for the detection of blood 
stains. The name Lignumvitae originated from the supposition 
that extracts possessed extraordinary remedial powers. f 

* Correspondence Mr. Gustave R. Tuska, A. Am. Soc. C. E., late Engineer 
Panama Railway. Also Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 52, page 66. 
t U. S. Dispensatory. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO^DLE^f IVOODS. in 

Holly, American Holly. //e.v opaca Ail. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Holly, American lh)lly (local White Holly (Va.). 

and common names). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Indiana 
and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Occasionally fifty feet in height and three feet in diameter, fre- 
quently much smaller, particularly in North. Foliage is ever- 
green. Bright red berries remain until spring. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood cream-white, darkening or spotting on exposure. 
Sapwood similar or lighter. Very close-grained, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Tough, moderately hard and heavy, easily worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Inlaid work, carvings, scrollwork, turnery, moderately for furni- 
ture and decoration. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 

Wodulus of Elasticity. 

9 1 o, 000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9700. 
Remarks. 
The wood resembles ivory, and is characteristically employed for 
the white of inlaid work. The more elaborate specimens of 
inlaid work are manufactured in Italy, but they are not always 
durable, at least when brought into the highly heated houses of 
the Northern States. Inlaid work manufactured in the United 
States, originally by imported workmen, may be less elaborate 
but is often more durable than the foreign product. This is 
because Americans employ more perfectly prepared materials. 



112 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Dogwood, Flowering Dogwood. Qinius florida Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Dogwood, Flowering Dog- False Box-dogwood (Ky. ). 

wood (local and common New England iioxwood 

names). (Tenn. ). 

Boxwood (Conn., R. I., N.Y., Cornel, Flowering Cornel 

Miss., Mich., Ky., Ind., (Tex., R. I.). 
Ont.). 

Locality. 

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Texas, Sierra Madra Mountains, Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height, one foot or more in 
diameter. Often low shrub, large white flowers precede 
foliage, red berry in fall. Rough blackish bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, changing to green and red. Sapwood 
lighter, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, strong, tough, hard, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Wood-carving, engraving, bearings of machinery, turnery. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic P'oot. 

50- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1. 160,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

The Mexican or Black Persimmon and the Great Laurel {Rho- 
dodendron maxnniim) afford substitutes. Yellowwood [Schaef- 
feria friitescens) is also known as boxwood. The names 
Dogwood and Poison Dogwood are often applied to the 
sumach. Cornus signifies horn and refers to hardness of 
wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF H'OODS. 113 

Lignumvitae. Guajacum sanctum. 

Nonicuchuuru. (Sudworth.) 

Lignumvitx- (Fla.). Ironwood (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Semitropical Florida, Bahamas, San Domingo, Cuba, Puerto 
Rico. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five feet high, one foot in diameter. ? low gnarled tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich yellow-brown in younger specimens and almost 
black in older one.s. Sapwood light yellow. Close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very heavy and exceedingly hard, strong, hard to work, brittle. 
Lubricated by water, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Sheaves of ship-blocks, rollers, pulleys, tool-handles. Bearings 
for journals rotating in water. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

71 
Modulus of Ela.sticity. 

1,220,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

11,100. 
Remarks. 

Two other species, Guajacum officinale and Guajacum arborium, 
afford similar woods not commercially distinguished from the 
above. Ties of a kind of Lignumvitis, so hard that holes had 
to be bored for spikes, have resisted thirty years exposure in 
moist, hot climate of the Isthmus of Panama. 



Sissoo and Sabicu have attracted attention, but have given way to other timbers 
more plentiful, better located and as good. 

Sabicu (Lysiloma sabicu). This West Indian wood is very hea\T, hard, strong 
and plastic. It seasons and works well, is very durable and is good for keels 
frames and the like. The beautiful, dark brown color with figured satiny grain, 
together with the finishing qualities of this wood, have caused it to be used in 
furniture. It may be mistaken for rosewood. 

Sissoo {Dalhergia sissoo) is a medium sized tree, native in Northern India and 
acclimated in California. The very hard, heavy, strong, clastic wood seasons well, 
lasts well, and is used in wheels, carriage frames, implements and furniture. It 
was once pri. ed for gun carriages. The brownish tint suggests rosewood and 
much rosewood comes from a related species. (See page 122.) Sissoo is now 
scarce. 



{Magnolia, Rhododendron, Arbutus, etc.) 

The name Laurel applies locally or botanically to a number 
of American plants, several of which attain to the dignity of 
trees. 

The Big Laurel or Magnolia {M. gi-andiflord) is an orna- 
mental tree of the highest rank, extensively planted in parks 
and gardens of American cities as far north as Washington, 
and also grown in Europe. The wood is suitable for interior 
finish and is also used for fuel. The California Laurel {Umbel- 
liilaria californicd) and the Madrona or Madrofia Laurel 
{Arbutus menziesW) are Pacific coast species of beautiful 
appearance, the strong, heavy, hard woods of which are of 
economic importance. Professor Sargent considers * that the 
former is the most valuable interior or cabinet wood produced 
by the forests of the Pacific coast. The wood of the Madrona 
has little or no place in construction, but its charcoal is used 
in the manufacture of gunpowder. The wood of the Great 
Laurel or Rose Bay {Rliododendron iiinxiuuiiii) has been used 
as boxwood. The gnarled roots of the Mountain Laurel or 
calico bush {Kalmia latifolia) are used for rustic hanging- 
baskets, seats, and the like. 

All of the kinds here noted have evergreen foliage. 
* Page 69, "Catalogue Jesup Collection," Sargent. 

California end Florida are particularly rich in tropical and semi-tropical trees 
transplanted from many parts of the world. Most of them are landscape e.xhiDits 
or experiments, rather than commercial successes or necessities, but some are speci- 
ally noticeable. ("Olive," see footnote page 34, "Pepper," footnote page 115, 
"Orange," footnote page 34, "Camphor," footnote page 99, etc.) 

Rubber Trees. — Commercial rubber is afforded by trees of several genera as 
Ficus, Hevea, and Castilla. The .^ssam rubber tree (F. elastica), a native of trop- 
ical Asia, is particularly valued for rubber. This species, as well as F. macro- 
phylla, F. rubiginosa, F. glomerata and others, grows in Florida and California, 
where they are all valued only in landscape effects. Some American specimens 
are fifty or more feet in height. Small rubber plants are used in house decora- 
tion. Para rubber is afforded by H. braziliensis and related species, Mexican 
rubber by Castilla alba and related species. Rubber is secreted only under favor- 
able conditions. — Also see Cook, U. S. Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 49, "India 
Rubber World," etc., etc. 

114 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF WOODS. nS 

'California Laurel, Mountain Laurel. rmbclluLiria otU/oniica Xutt. 

Niinu-iiclaturc. (Sudworth.) 

California Laurel, .Mountain Myrtle-tree, Cajej)ut, Cali- 

Laurcl (Cal., Nev ). fornia Olive (Oreg.). 

California Bay Tree, Spice Californian Sassafras. 

Tree (Cal., Nev., Oreg.). 
Laurel, Bay-tree, Orcodaphnc (Cal.). 

Locality. 

California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in 
diameter. Evergreen foliage, beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light rich brown, sapwood lighter brown. Close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, receives beautiful polish. 

Kepresentative U.ses of Wood. 

Ship-building, cabinet-work, cleats, crosstrees. 

^^'eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

40. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,510,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1 ,400. 
Remarks. 

A valuable Pacific coast cabinet wood. Foliage and wood are 
characterized by pungent oils, sometimes separated Itydi^tillatimi 
and used in medicine. 



The Pepper, California Pepper or Peruvian Mastic (Schinus molle) was first 
introduced into California from Peru by the early Spanish missions and is now 
one of the most popular shade trees in many places south of San Francisco. It 
is an irregular tree thirty to fifty feet in height and from two to four feet in 
diameter. It suggests an apple tree with the drooping foliage of the willow. 
There is a mass of slender branchlets. light fern-like foliage and long sprays of 
rod or rose tinted persistent berries the size of currants or pepper corns, whence 
the name. The berries contrast with bright, evergreen leaves and render this one 
of the most beautiful of all landscape trees. The leaves emit a pleasant, pungent 
odor and possess, to some degree, the quality of stopoing dust, which does not 
however adhere to the leaves. There are gutta percha like exudations used in 
medicine. The soft, smooth, whitish \\oods that sometimes darken with age are 
not employed save for fuel. The pepper is the host of the " black scale " and is 
being replaced l:y the better, faster gro'.ving I.ongleaved Pepper (Schimis tere- 
binthifoHus) from Brazil. Fourteen of the seventeen species are South American. 
No one is important save as above. (Calif. Agricultural Exper. Station, Bui. 147. 
Correspondence U. S. Forestry Bureau. .\lso see Bailey, Cyclopedia Am. Hor- 
ticulture..) 



Il6 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Madroila, Madroua Laurel. Arbuius fnenziesii Pursh. 

Nomenclature. (SiRlworth. ) 

Madrona, Madrona Laurel Madrone-tree, Rlanzanita 

(Cal., Oreg.). (*Jreg., Cal.). 

Laurel, Laurelwood, Madrone. Madrove (Cal.). 
Locality. 

Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern California. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher. Two 
to four feet in diameter. Straight well-formed trunk. Ever- 
green foliage. A shrub in the South. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood reddish, thin sapwood slightly pink. Close- 
grained; numerous and conspicuous medullary rays 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely for gunpowder, charcoal, also furniture. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
Modulus of I-21asticity. 

1,190,000. 
Modulus uf Rupture. 

12,000. 
Remarks. 
A beautiful ornamental tree. The attractive wood is seldom 
seen save locally- This tree has been confused with the Laurel, 
Madrona or Mexican Madrona (Arhutus xalapensis) also called 
the Manzanita, and with California species of the genus Arc- 
tostapluilos hum which Manzanita wood is derived. 



The name Manzaniia is s imewhat loosely used to designate a hard, heavy, 
close-grained, rich, reddish brown wood that lends itself to various trinkets, as 
cuff buttons, rulers, checkers and the like, seen in California curio stores. Large 
sized pieces are rare and long pieces practically unknown. Most Manzanita wood 
is probably derived from Arctostaphylos pungens, Arctostaphylos tomentosa and 
Arctostaphylos glauca. 

The China or China-berry (Melia azcdarach) of Louisiana and other southern 
States is sometimes, as in California, known as the Umbrella tree and elsewhere, 
as in Europe, as the Bead tree and Pride of India. The short, straight trunk 
merges abruptly into numerous branches radiating outward like the ribs of an 
umbrella. The peculiar form, rapid development and thick handsome foliage 
cause the tree to be used in southern landscapes. The pits of the white (china) 
berries are sometimes used as beads. The handsome wood suggests mahogany 
and could doubtless have place in furniture and decoration. 



PLATE 23. PERSIMMON, OSAGE ORANGE, CHERRY 

(Diospyros), [Mach<ra), (Prmuis). 








v.. 











Osage Orange Trunk (Af. „„r„„/,;2a,). Wild Black Cherry Trunk (P. urotina). 
Cherry WcMid. 

Osage Orange Wood. 
, Persimmon Woodi 



PERSIMMON. OSAGE ORANGE. CHERRY. 

{Diospyros.) {Madura.) (Pninus.) 

The Persimmon {Diospyros virgiiiiand) grows in many of 
the central and southern United States and affords a hard, 
tough wood, resembling fine-grain hickory, that is used for 
implements and other small work. Tlie pluni-likc fruit is 
remarkably astringent when green, but is sweet, rich, and 
palatable when ripe. The persimmon is a member of the 
ebony family {Ebcnaccce), and the extremely close-grained 
heartwood is almost black. The ebony of commerce is 
derived from tropical species of this genus. 

The Osage Orange or Bois D'Arc {Machira aiirantiaca) is 
found in the Gulf and neighboring States, and has been culti- 
vated in the North. The wood is unusually hard and strong, and 
is of a yellow color, which, however, darkens with age. It is in 
many ways a unique and serviceable product, widely utilized 
locally in the South, but almost unknown in the North, and 
nowhere sufficiently appreciated. The aborigines made bows 
and arrows of it, whence the name Bois D'Arc. The tree affords 
a useless fruit somewhat resembling the common orange in 
appearance. 

The widel)' distributed Wild Cherry or Wild Black Cherry 
{Priiiiiis scrotina) supplies the cherry wood of commerce. 
This wood is strong, hard, fine-grained, red-colored, and one 
of the most popular decorative woods of the American forests. 
Sweet or Cherry Birch {Betiila lento) is often stained so as to 
imitate it, while it of itself is stained so as to resemble 
mahogany. The wood of the cultivated cherry is not used in 
the United States. The wild cherry bears purplish-black fruit 
somewhat larger than peas, sweetly bitter when ripe. The 
bark is also bitter. It should be noted of these woods that the 
thin heart of the persimmon is black, that of the Bois d'Arc is 
yellow, and that of the cherry is red. Each receives a high 
polish. 

117 



Il8 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Persimmon. Dwspyros virginiana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Persimmon (local and com- Simmon, Possum wood (Fla.). 

mon name). Plaqueminier (La.). 

Date Plum (N. J., Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Missouri and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Occasionally seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Soft plum-like fruit, astringent when green, sweet when ripe. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark-brown or black, sapwood light-brown, often 
with darker spots. V'ery thin heartwood. Very close-grained, 
compact structure. Medullary rays conspicuous. Resembles 
hickory. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, etc. Prized for shuttles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

49- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,110, GOO. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

The astringency of unripe fruit is due to tannic acid. The dried 
and roasted seeds have been used for coffee.* Heartwood is 
not greatly developed in trees under one hundred years of age. 

* U. S. Dispensatory. 



Ebony. This name applies to several hard, black woods, that 
are used in inlaid work, for the black keys of pianos and other special 
purposes. Ebony is derived from several species of the genus Dios- 
pyros that are native in Ceylon and Southern Imlia. Jamaica ebony 
is afforded by Bijra ebeniiis. There are other sources. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- liROADl.EAh' IVOODS. 



iig 



- ( Madura auranliaca Nutt. 

Osage Orange. ^ ^^^ ^.,,/^^, pomi/erum Raf. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Osage Orange (local and com- 
mon name). 

Bois D'Arc (La., Tex., Mo.). 

Bodark, Bodock (Kans.). 

Yellow-wood, Osage Apple 
Tree (Tenn.). 



Hodge, Hedge-plant, Osage 

(HI., la., Neb.). 
Mock Orange (La.), 
Bow-wood (Ala.). 



Locality. 

Southern Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Te.xas. Cultivated 
elsewhere, as in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty to fifty feet in height, rarely beyond one and one-half feet 
in diameter. Fruit resembles orange. Long thorns. 

Color, Appearance, or (irain of Wood. 

Heartwood bright orange, turns brown on exposure. Sapwood 
light yellow, close-grained, annual rings clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, very strong, flexible, durable in contact with soil. 
Receives beautiful polish. Shrinks in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Fence-posts, piles, telegraph poles, railway ties, paving-blocks, 
occasionally indoor decoration, carriage making, machinery. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

48. 
IModulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
INIodulus of Rupture. 



16,000. 

Remarks. 

Indians used wood for bows, thus the name 
Bois D'Arc, corrupted into Bow Dark or 
Bodark. A valuable wood not enough 
appreciated. Often planted as hedges. 
The fruit is useless. The durability of 
some pieces of this wood is remarkable. 
The Kansas City, Ft. Scott and Memphis 
Ry. has a Bodark plantation at Farling- 
ton, Kansas. 




Osage Orange. 



I20 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Wild Black Cherry, Wild Cherry. Primus scrotina Ehrh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Wild Black Cherry, Wild Rum Cherry (N. H., Mass., 

Cherry (local and common R. 1., Miss., Neb.), 

names). Whiskey Cherry (Minn.). 

Black Cherry (Me., N. H., Choke ' Cherry (Mo., Wis., 

Vt., R. I., N. Y., Miss., la.). 

Ky., Mich., Wis., Ind., 
Neb.). 

Locality. 

Eastern to Central United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to eighty feet in height. Two to three or more feet in 
diameter. Bitter bark, pea-^ized fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellow, tine straight grain 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, strong, easily worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Cabinet-work, interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,700. 
Remarks. 

The bitter bark contains medicinal proi)erties 

valued in bronchitis and other troubles. 

The fruit, agreeable when ripe, is also 

used in medicines and cordials. 



Wild Black Cherry 
(Friimis serotina). 




I'LATK 24. TEAK AND 



GREENTIEAKT l 7;<7,>«,;. .WulanJra, etc.). 




1 



'^l^^'^V xL^l 







Greenheart. 



TEAK. GREENHEART. 

( Tectoiia. ) (Nectaiuira. ) 

There are two Teaks; the principal one (J'ectona gra)idis\ 
a native of Asia, has been called the "Oak" of the Indian 
forests, the other (Oldficldia africaita) is an African tree.* 
The Greenheart {Ncctandra rodiali) is of the laurel family and 
grows in South America. The woods, although foreign, are of 
such nature as to have widely established reputations, and each 
has at some time been used in construction. 

Teak suggests oak, save that it is lighter and has a more 
uniform structure. It is very durable, and an oily secretion 
repels insects and preserves iron fastenings. During the 
supremacy of wooden vessels it was regarded as one of the best 
ship-building woods in existence. The grain fits it for carv- 
ings, and it is now known in North America chiefly because 
of this fact. Indian teak is the wood usually referred to. 

Greenheart, a South American wood, was early placed 
among the first class of shipbuilding woods by Lloyd's Regis- 
ter, and is yet taken to Europe to some extent for dock- and 
ship-building and for implements, but is seldom found and but 
little known in the United States. It is strong, hard, durable, 
and extremely heavy, the latter quality being so pronounced as 
to limit its field of usefulness. It was hoped that such hard 
wood would resist attacks from marine borers, but this has not 
been the case. (See page 190.) Greenheart is suited for rollers, 
pins, and similar articles ihat require great strength and dura- 
bility. Finished pieces of selected woods are so rich in appear- 
ance that it is surprising that they are not seen oftener. They 
are of wax-like, green-yellow or browns. A small quantity of 
Greenheart is used in American cabinet work. 

* It was long supposed that African teak was supplied by the sj)ecies Swictenia 
senegalensis. It is now known that the source is Oldficldia africana, of the family 
Euphorbiacex. It is not impossible that wood passing as teak may be derived 
from yet other species. 

121 



122 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Teak. lec/omi granJis. 

Nomenclature. 

Teak. Teek. 

Indian Oak. Sagwan. 

Locality. 

India, Burma, Siam, Ceylon. 

Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in 
diameter, sometimes larger. Straight trunk, large drooping 
deciduous leaves. Unsuccessful in California 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Variable, brownish-yellow, straight, even-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately hard, strong, easily worked, stands well, oily, 
fragrant, resists termites, preserves iron. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, ship-building, timbers, backing for armor-plates. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
50 (Laslett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,338,000 (Lazlett). 
2,100,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 
15,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The oil is thought to preserve iron and repel termites. Burma, 
Malabar, Rangoon, and other teaks take names from districts 
producing them. The distinct African teak {Oldfieldia afri- 
cand) affords wood sometimes marketed as African mahog- 
any and sometimes as African oak. 

There are many rosewoods. African rosewood is derived from Plerocarpus 
erinaceus, Brazilian rosewood from Dalbergia nigra, Indian rosewood from 
Dalbergia latifolia, Jamaica rosewood from Amyris balsamifera and Linociera 
ligustrina, and Canary rosewood from Convolvulus scoparius. There is a faulty 
purplish Philippine wood as well as other botanical sources in each one of the 
districts noted. Commercial rosewood is hard, tough, very fine-grained and of 
compact structure. The colors vary from rich reds to chestnut, with frequent 
black streaks or purplish effects. The demand is small. The wood has been 
used in local constructions, but is normally seen in costly furniture, piano cases, 
burial caskets and panel work. Compartment cars sometimes have " rosewoo.i 
rooms " associated with other rooms of Circassian walnut and English oak. 
There are other names for Rosewood, as Blackwood, Bloodwood, and African 
Teak. The name Rosewood is due to the rose scent, often faint, but sometimes 
very pronounced. An oil distilled from one species has been used to adulterate 
attar of roses. " California rosewood " seen in souvenirs is derived from stems 
of large rose bushes. 



EX4DGENOUS SERIES— BROADLF.^fF IVOODS. 1 23 

Greenheait. Ncdnndra rodiwi. 

Koincnclaturc. 

Greenheart (local and common name). 

Locality. 

British Guiana and adjacent portions of South America and the 
West Indies. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to sometimes seventy feet in height, two to four 
feet in diameter. A straight tree. 

Color, Appearance, or (Srain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark green to chestnut or nearly black, sapwood 
similar. Clean, straight, compact structure, free from knots. 
Numerous pores, annual layers hardly distinguishable. Cabinet 
work. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

E.xceptionally heavy, strong, and durable, tough, hard, elastic, 
receives high polish, breaks suddenly. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-keels, frames, rollers, turnery, also beams, jtlanks, and 
piles (Europe). In America tops of fishing-rods and very 
occasionally veneers. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
72 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 1,090,000 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Rupture. 10,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

Excessive weight unfits it for many purposes. Greenheart lasts 
longer than steel in the sewage polluted waters of the Liverpool 
docks and it is more easily mended. Wood erected in 1856 
was recently removed and found to be so sound that it could be 
re-used. IVIetal fastenings showed serious decay. (Also see 
Kenyon, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E. . \'ol. LII. 

The Sandalwood of commerce is derived from many botanical sources. The 
genus Sanlalum alone includes twenty species. Until the eighteenth century, 
wood was obtained from China. The discovery of sources on the Pacific Islands 
Ud to lawless traffic and much bloodshed. The adventures associated with the 
collection of this wood equalled those encountered in whaling and in the search 
for ivory. The history of the. wood dates before the Christian era. Sandalwood 
(Santalum album) is of a yellowish-brown color, close-grained, very fragrant, and 
weighing about fifty-eight pounds per cubic foot. Sandalwood was prized by the 
French nobility for medallions mounted on otherwise decorated surfaces and for 
rich furniture. It is now occasionally employed in fine carvings for small objects, 
as jewel-boxes and fan-handles. A fragrant oil is separated by distillation. 
Powdered wood is burned as incense. Sandalwood is associated with Buddhism 
in India and China. Red sandalwood or Saunder's wood {Pterocarpus santaUnus) 
yields a red dye called santalin and is said to have been the almug tree of 
Solomon. 



MAHOGANY. 

{Swietenia, Khaya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc. ) 

There are three principal mahogany trees : the Central 
American or true mahogany {Sivictciiia maliogani), the African 
mahogany (Khaya scucgalcnsis), and the Indian mahogany 
(Soytnida fcbi-ifiiga). There are also minor species called 
mahoganies."" American mahogany was originally divided by 
dealers into Spanish and Honduras wood, the former from the 
then Spanish- American possessions. A considerable supply 
now comes from Mexico, taking name from port of shipment; 
as, Frontera, Laguna, Santa Ana, Tecoliitla, r\Iiiiatitlan, and 
Tonala, desirability being much in the order named. The 
African field is the latest and probably most important, very 
large quantities of its wood being distributed through English 
markets. 

Mahogany, placed among the second class of ship-building 
woods by Lloyd's Register, was once used to some e.xtent in 
place of oak in naval architecture, but is now so greatly valued 
for decoration as to be employed for little else, save occa- 
sionally the hulls of small pleasure craft. The decorative value 
is due to a combination of beauty, working qualities, and 
durability. Beauty is influenced by both grain and warm red 
color. The latter is generally light, and although it subse- 
quently darkens, in most cases, to a characteristic and rich 
reddish-brown, is usually induced immediately by stains. The 
grain is not only beautiful of itself, but is such as to receive 
those stains and finishing processes thus demanded. Different 
localities produce woods varying in tint and grain. Individual 

* Mahogany and mountain mahogany are names applied in the United States 
to Rhus integrifolia, a native of Lower California and the coast islands, and to 
the following species of the Rocky Mountain Region (Idaho to Arizona): 
Cercocarpus ledifolius, Used for fui-1. 

Cercocarpus parvifolius, Used for fviel. 

Cercocarpus breviflorus, Heavy, hard, not common. 

124 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— RROADI.E/IF IVOODS. 125 

trees also differ in desirability. No two are alike. Beautiful 
grain effects are often obtained in ' ' crotches ' ' or junctions 
between trunk and branch, and such pieces bring high prices. 
Mahogany is generally used as a veneer. Layers are glued 
either to some central piece or " core " or else to one another. 
The layers are arranged so as to cross one another's grain, 
and results are usually thought to be more desirable than those 
obtained from solid wood. Few woods glue better, and iew 
shrink or distort less when in place. 

" Spanish Cedar "{Cecfrc-/a odoratd) is a broadleaf wood, .unl 
not a conifer as is usually supposed. It is nearly related to, and 
usually found and cut with, true mahogany. Lindley * divides 
Cedrelec£e into two sub-orders: Swietenia;, including the true 
mahoganies, and Cedrela;, with nine genera and twenty-five 
species distributed over tropical Asia and America. 

Prima vera or white mahogany belongs to Bignoniacea;, 
which also includes the catalpas. It grows in Mexico and 
Central America, associated with true or red mahogany. Prima 
vera resembles red mahogany even to the conspicuous pores so 
characteristic of the latter wood. It differs only in color, a light 
yellow that darkens with age. The characteristic color of 
finished wood is golden yellow. It is difhcult to obtain large 
pieces of Prima vera free from worm holes. The wood is seen 
in car finish, house trim and fine furniture where red mahogany 
might otherwise be employed. 

* John Lindley. Tre.isury of Botany, p. 243, Part I; also see Gifford, 
•' Foresty and Irrigation,'' Vol. VIII, No. 4, p. 174; also Correspondence Messrs. 
Wm. E. Uptegrove & Brother, New York Cily. 



Satinwood is hard, heavy, durable, close-grained, brittle and smooth like 
boxwood. The pale yellow or cream-colored heartwood has a peculiar, fine, 
satin-like appearance when polished. Trees are not large. The wood, which is 
very costly and seldom used save in fine cabinet work and odd sets of furniture, 
is derived from several genera and localities. East Indian satin wood is from 
Chloroxylon swietenia,* a relative of mahogany, and also Maba buxifolia, an 
ebenacious tree. Bahama satinwood is probably also from the genus Maba. 
Florida and West Indian satinwood come from Xanthoxylum caribaeum. The 
botanical source of Tasmanian satinwood is unknown. 

* "Indian Forester," Vol. 28, pp. 341-34.3 and 410-411. 



3 26 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Mahogany. Sivielenia viahogajii Jacq. 

Nomenclature. 

Mahogany (local and common Honduras Mahogany (Hon- 

name). duras). 

Spanish Mahogany (Cuba. San liaywood, Madeira, Redwood. 

Domingo, West Indies). 
Mexican Mahogany (Frontera, 

Laguna, Santa Anna, and 

other Mexican ports). 
Locality. 

Florida Keys, Bahamas, West Indies, Mexico, Central America, 

Peru. 

Features of Tree. 

Florida specimens forty-five feet in height and two or more feet 
in diameter. Foreign trees larger. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light, rich reddish brown. Thin sapwood yellow. Smooth, 
fine uniform texture, inconspicuous rings, conspicuous pores, 
sometimes filled with white substance. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, brittle, durable, holds glue, takes stains and high 
polish, small distortion in seasoning, stands well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-work, veneers; formerly ship-building. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,510, 000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Desirability varies with locality. Spanish mahogany ranks first, 
and harder Mexican woods next. Mahogany is usually 
stained. African mahogany is now successfully rivaling the 
American product. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BRO/IDLEAF IVOODS. 127 

White Mahogany. Prima vera. Tabcuiu Donnell Smithii {Rose). 

NoniL-nclaturc. 

White Mahogany, Prima vera (local and common names). 

Locality. 

Mexico and Central America. 

Features of Tree. 

P'ifty to seventy-five feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. 
Tall, slender, a beautiful tree. Numerous golden-yellow 
llowers precede the leaves. 

Color, .\ppearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Cream-white. Beautiful, fine grain, resembles mahoijany exactly 
save in color. Conspicuous pores. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Works and stands well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-work, fine furniture, veneers. 

AA'eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Many twelve-foot logs imported through San Francisco and 
west. Named after discoverer. The wood of the butternut or 
white walnut is sometimes sold as white mahogany, but is 
seldom if ever confused with the true wood. Prima vera 
is appropriate where fine, light colored, cheerful effects are 
required. The appearance is practically identical with that of 
true mahogany, save in color. 



See Botanical Gazette, Vol. XVII, 1892, p. 418; Contribution U. S. National 
Herbarium, p. 346, Vol. I, No. 9, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Division of Botany. 



128 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar. Cedrda odorata Lnm. 

Nomenclature. 

Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar, Cuban Cedar (local and common 
names). 

Locality. 

Mexico, Cuba, West Indies. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Pale- 
yellow flowers. Pods resemble pecan-nuts. Tree suggests 
English walnut (_/. regia). 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Brownish red, straight, even, compact grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, fragrant, porous, durable. Resembles cedar woods derived 
from coniferous trees (page 167); also resembles mahogany. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cigar-boxes, boats, fine cabinet-work. May be used in place 
of mahogany. The figured Australian Red Cedar {C. australis) 
is locally used for furniture, joinery, carriages, ceilings, door- 
frames, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Plasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Used for cigar-boxes, because its porous structure assists cigars 
to season, and its odor improves their flavor. The Cuban 
supply is practically exhausted. Mexico is now the chief 
American source. Trees grow rapidlv. 



The Toon Cedar {Cedrela loona Roxburgh) of the Orient is the same as the 
Red Cedar (Cedrela australis F- v. M.) of Australi.i. The Cedar {Cedrela odornta 
Blanco) is thought to be distinct Philippine species. 

"Forestry and Irrigation," p. 173. Vol. VIII, No 4; Writings Dr. Gifford; 
Correspondence Wm. E. Uplegrove & Brother, and others. 



PLATE 25. EUCALYPTUS (Kiu-.iivpt,,,). 




Blue Gum Tree, (E. gMi,/iis) Crilifnriiia. Blue Gum P.nrk (E. Rhhuhis^ California. 
Jarrah Trunk, (E. marginata) Australia. 
Jarrah Wood.f£'. marg^nata^. 
Karri Wood {E. diversicolor). 



EUCALYPTUS. 

(Eucalypltis.) 

These trees, locally known as Stringy-barks, Ironbarks, Ma- 
hoganies, Box and Gum Trees, are natives of Australia and the 
neighboring islands. Some species now grow on parts of each 
one of the continents, where they have often influenced condi- 
tions to a remarkable degree.* Most Eucalypts withdraw large 
quantities of water from the soil, but their upper portions re- 
quire much warm, dry air and sunshine. Eucalyptus trees have 
not succeeded in the United States outside of CaHfornia, Ari- 
zon.T, New Mexico, Texas and Florida, and their success, in the 
last three districts has not been remarkable. The Eucalypts have 
quite changed the appearance of many districts in California. f 
The Blue Gum {Eucalyptus globulus) is the species commonly 
referred to when the Eucalyptus is mentioned in North America, 
althougli other species have been successfully acchmated. 

The Euclypts are noted for great size, rapid growth, tough, 
durable woods, and effect upon health. 

Size is illustrated by the species Eucalyptus amygdalina, individuals of which 
have reached a height of over four hundred feet and are thus, probably, the tallest 
although not the largest trees known to man. Development is shown by speci- 
mens of Eucalyptus globulus that have lengthened in excess of two feet a month 
during the first year.J The working qualities of Jarrah, Karri, Tuart and Red 
("lum Woods (E. marginata, E. tliversicolor, E. gomplwceplmla, and E. rostnila) 
are such as to have caused them to take high rank in local constructions. The 
first two have been preferred beyond all other materials for paving the streets of 
London and of Paris. Improvement in health has followed the introduction of 
Blue Gums(£. globulus) in malarial districts, such as those around Rome. Such 
results "hile possibly influenced by the presence of medicinal substances in the 
foliage are principally due to the fact that the leaves evaporate unusual quantities 
of water from the soil. § 

* " Will sensibly affect the aspect of the country just as thev have affected 
that of the Riviera, of the Campagnia, and of the Nilghiri hills in South India " 
— Bryce, Impressions of South Africa. 

t The Florida climate is favorable most but not all of the time. That of 
Southern California and parts of .'\rizona is so equable that McClatchie details 
forty-one distinct species already growing. This district must be regarded as the 
only real American locality at tliis time. 

I A Passadena blue gum was five feet thick at the end of twenty-five vears. 
Others in Santa Barbara at the same age compared with oaks known to be two 
hundred or three hundred years old. A specimen three years from the seed meas- 
ured about nine inches in diameter. — McClatchie. 

§ The writer has seen long rows of California blue gums cut down be.:ausc they 
" dried the soil." 



130 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

The genus may thus be summarized from the point of view 
of the living tree and from that of the wood. 

Trees grow rapidly; some grow where those of other species will not; some 
form wind brakes and forest cover; some serve in landscape effects; some afford 
honey; * many yield oils.f The hard wood timbers present an unusual range of 
possibilities. McClatchie quotes twenty-five special purposes to which eucalyptus 
woods have been applied in Australia. Si.t species are valued for bridge timbers, 
five for piles, nine for paving, eight for posts, three for railway ties, four for car 
building, five for lumber and shingles, seven for carriage parts, two for cooperage, 
and two for handles. The American demands are thus far principally for fuel,J 
posts, parts of farm implements, and pins for insulators on long distance transmis- 
sion cables. Blue gum piles have been successfully employed at Santa Barbara 
and Ocean-side. 

Eucalyptus trees are characterized by leathery evergreen 
foliage of many tints, such as blue, gray and green. The leaves 
of young and old trees sometimes differ. Those of young blue- 
gums are bright blue, oval and stalkless, while older leaves have 
stems, are dark green and sickle-shaped. The characteristic 
odor is the only point in common between the young and old 
foliage of this species. It may be added that the foliage and 
young twigs of all species possess a more or less pronounced 
odor due to the presence of oils. The nomenclature is very con- 
fusing. There are eight "iron barks," nine "red gums," eLven 
"stringy-barks" and twelve "blue gums," so that botanical 
names must be preferred. Eucalyptus refers to portions of the 
flowers and means "well concealed." The nearly one hundred 
and fifty species are all evergreens. 

* Trees blossom during droughts when other flowers are scarce. So.iie species 
blossom twice a year. Flowers are always seen on some of the species. The 
Red and Sugar Gums (E. rostrata and E. corynocaUjx) are notably rich in honey. 

t Oils differ with species and, as first separated, are mixtures. Si.x-tenths of 
the product from the Blue Gum is a substance known as Eucalyplol. E. citrio- 
dora yields a citron-scented oil, E. amygdalina is very prolific. 

I The Blue, Manna and Red Gums and the Red Iron Bark arc all systemati- 
cally cultivated for fuel in Southern California. Blue Gum and Manna Gum are 
ready for cutting at the end of si.x or seven years. 



Works of Baron von Muller; Report J. Ednie-Brown, Forest Commissioner 
Western Australia; Correspondence M. Francis Chapman, Esq., London; The 
Forester; Work of Abbot Kinney, Press Baumgardt & Co., Los Angeles, U. S. 
Forestry Bulletin No. 11. The most useful American sources, " McClatchie, U. S. 
Forestry Bulletin No. 35," is particularly acknowledged. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. i;i 

Jarrah. Eucalvplus mar^inata. 

Nomenclature. 

Jarrah (local and common name). 
Mahogany Gum (Australia). 

Locality. 
Western coast of Australia. Some .sjjecimens acclimated in 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one huiidrcil or more feel in heiL;ht, two to five feet 
in <lianietc-r. Fifty or more feet to lowest hranch. Dull, 
sombre appearance. Branches concentrated at top. Few 
California specimens are over thirty feet in height. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Reddish, resembles mahogany, also Kauri wood. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, non-ab.sorbent, somewhat oily, durable in contact with 
the soil, receives good polish. Characteristic odor, wears 
thin evenly, not easily inflammable. Said to repel teredo and 
termite; 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Marine work, e.\posed positions, ship-building, bridge timbers, 
street-paving (London and Paris). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
65 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,080,000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
8900 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Chief timber tree of southwestern Australia. Often confused 
with Karri. Miiller (alls it the least inflammable of woods. 
Marginata refers to thick-edged leaves. 

* Report Forests Western .-Vustralia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 



The Red Mahogany (Eucal;/p:us resinijCTo) has very limited local ranges. 
The hard, heavy, durable, rich-red wood resembles mahogany and is used for 
shingles, posts, piles and pavings. It can be used in furniture. 

Manna Gum {E. vi'iiinalis) grows very rapidly, but the wood is not as 
serviceable as that from Blue Gum. Red Gum and Blue Gum arc- lilcelv to grow 
wherever the Manna gum will grow. 

The Victoria Stringy-bark (i?. macrorhtjncha) has a thick, dark-grav, fibrous, 
durable bark that is used in .Australia for roofin':; out-buildings; strings are 
obtained from it. The hard, durab c wood i^ used for lumber, shingles and fuel. 



i:,2 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF H'OOO. 

Karri. Eucah'ptus diwrsiculor. 

Nomenclature. 

Karri (many localities). White Gum (.\ustralia). 

Locality. 

Australia, New Zealand. Some specimens acclimated in California. 

Features of Tree. 

Two to three hundred and fifty feet in height, four to eighteen 
feet in diameter. A straight graceful tree, lower branches 
often one hundred and fifty feet from ground. Smooth yellow 
white bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of W'oud. 

Reddish brown, fibres interlaced, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, tough and elastic, non-absorbent, durable, diffi- 
cult to work, wears evenly, characteristic odor. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, railway ties, piles, marine work, pavements 
(London and Paris). Masts, lumber (Australia). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
63 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,890,000 (Ednie-Biown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
8000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Once named Eucalyptus colossea because of great size. Distinct 
from Kauri Pine (D. austixdis). Di versicolor refers to leaves 
the upper and lower sides of which differ in color. \ charac- 
teristic of other eucalypt also. 

* Report Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 



The Giant Eucalvpt or Peppermint Tree {Eucalyptus amiigdalina) 
is probably the tallest of all trees. The leaves smell like peppermint 
because of oils that are often separated and used in medicine. The 
light woods are outclassed by those of other species. 



The Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus corynocalyx) now grows thriftily in 
California. It is one of the best species for desert culture. The 
profuse blossoms continue for several months. The very hard, durable 
woods season evenly, and have been used in wheels and utensils. Trees 
are planted along roads; they attain heights of sixty to ninety feft. 



liXOGHNOUS SF.RlES—RROADI.r.Ah H/QODS. 133 

Tuart. Kucah'ptus gnnip/ioccp/inla. 

Xomunclatiirc. 

Tuart (local ami common Tooart (Australia). 

name). White Gum (Australia), 

Tewart (Australia). 

Locality. 
.\usiralia. A few specimens have been acclimated in Calif..riiia. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to si.x. 
feet in diameter. Lower branches forty or more feet from 
ground. Bright, cheerful appearance, straight trunk, grav- 
while bark. Californian specimens have reached heights of 
eighty feet within twenty-four year.-. 

Color, .Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

IleartwooJ light yellow, compact appearance, fibres interlaced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very hard, heavy, strong, tough, rigid, duraole, seasons well. 
Difficult to split or work. Strength and durability are very 
pronounced. Tuart is one of the strongest of all woods. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Keels, buffers, stern-posts, frames, wheel-hubs, shafts. 

Weight of Seasoned \^'ood in I^ouiuls per Cubic Foot. 
67 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,300,000 (Ednie- Brown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
9300 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Highly prized locally. One of the strongest of woods. Gom- 
phocephala refers to peculiarities in lid of caly.\;-tube. 



The Red Gum {Eucalyptus rostrata) is one of the leading Australian 
species. Baron von Mueller considered it " perhaps the most important 
of the whole genus." * Trees are one hundred feet or more in height. 
The wood is of a rich red color that darkens with age. It has a close, 
complicated grain, so that it is difficult to split, and it is remarkably uni- 
form, durable, strong and hard. Australians use it for ship-building, 
piles, posts, paving, curbs, poles, and house blocks. It is said to resist 
the attacks of marine life and termites. The flowers yield honey. There 
is a ruby-red exhudation known in medicine as " kino." The young bark 
is red, hence the name red gum. Rostratus refers to the beaked flower- 
bud coverings. Red gum bids fair to become one of the most successful 
eucalypts in America. 

* Report on Forests Western .\ustralia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 
t "It is the tree which produces directly to the Colony by far the most revenue 
of all our trees." — Jos. H. Maiden, Dire.tor Botanical Garden, Sydney, N. S. W. 



134 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Blue Gum, Fever Tree. Eucalyptus globulus. 

Nomenclature. 

Blue Gum (local and common Fever Tree (Australia), 

name). Ealluck (Australia). 

Locality. 

Native of Australia acclimated in southern California and else- 
where throughout the world. 

Features of Tree. 

TvifQ hundred to sometimes three hundred or more feet in height. 
Three to six feet in diameter. Loose, shaggy, exfoliating 
bark.* Leaves sometimes twelve inches in length. Color 
varies with age. Characteristic odor. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Straw color. Sapwood lighter. Indistinct annual rings. Fibres 
interlaced so that it is hard lo wuru, particularly when dry. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, durable, difficult to split, jiarticuiarly when drv. 
For this reason trees are sawn into planks, if at all, as soon as 
they have been felled. The green wood works much more 
easily than the dry. Blue Gum is less elastic although it com- 
pares with ash and hickory. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 
Rollers, paving-blocks, ship-building, fuel, carriage-making. 
Small pieces boiled in water and then in linseed oil are used 
for insulator pins on telegraph poles, piles and mine timljcrs in 
California. A principal fuel in Southern California. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
43 to 69 (Mueller) 
57 to 69 (Lazlett). 
Modulus of Elasticity, 
^lodulus of Rupture. 
Remarks. 

The Eucalyptus of California. The species planted in malarial 
districts. Sanitary powers due to evaporation from large leaves 
or presence of essential oils, which are thought to have medicinal 
qualities. Grows very rapidlv. 

* The bark is variable. Some trees of nearly i fool diameter have smooth green 
bark resembling that on young willow sapUngs; most others have the shaggy bark, 
while fro n some this has dropped away, exposing a smooth grayish interior sug- 
gesting that of the sycamore. Planted more widely than other Eucalypts. The 
species used in malarial districts. The " Eucalyptus " of California; one of the 
fastest growing trees in the world. Trees eight or ten years old, will, if cut down, 
produce shoots seventy five to one hundred feet high in six or eight years, ami 
cuttings may be continued indefinitely. The common name Blue Gum is applied 
to eleven other distinct species, so that the botanical name should never be 
omitted. Globulus refers to the glolular seed cases. 



PLATE 23 PINE {Finns). 




White I'iue Foliage (J^. stroOtis). 

Wliite Pine Tree (P. strobus). 
(Courtisy N. C. Ceol. Survey.) 

Hard Pine Wood (P. faliislris). 

Soft or Sugar Pine Wood {P. lanibertiana). 



li.ird I'liic Trunk yl: puiu^lri^). 
I^PhotOi^raph by E.lwayJJ, D^-visvn.) 



NEEDLELEAF WOODS. 

The trees affording these woods cover large areas in the 
natural forests of the Northern Hemisphere. They exist, but 
to an unimportant extent, in the South. Cedar, larch, and 
cypress figure in ancient history. Pine, spruce, hemlocl;, and 
other so-called soft woods are of this group, which lias always 
been important in the United States. 

Needleleaved woods are characterized by uniform fibre- 
conditions, presence of resins, and lighter weights. The 
vertical structure consists of simple, similar, elongated tubes 
or cells, tapering and finally closing at their ends, known as 
tracheids. These are arranged with more or less regularity, 
and woods are correspondingly easy to work. Pith-rays are 
scarcely visible, and sections do not show pores. Cavities 
known as resin-ducts, and which are not real vessels but rather 
simple intercellular spaces, secrete resins so important in 
making these woods durable and elastic. There are exceptions, 
such as the eucalyptus and tulip trees ; but as a rule the great- 
est tree forms are in this group, their trunks affording large 
straight pieces eminently suited for construction. The prop- 
erties of the woods are such that they are preferred in carpen- 
try and heavy constructions, the total requirement has greatl,' 
exceeded that for hard woods. 

The resinous, usually evergreen, leaves and the cones are 
sufficient to identify these trees. Needleleaf, softwood, conif- 
erous, and evergreen trees are the same. The name evergreen 
is not strictly correct, since some species — larch and bald 
cypress — shed their needles every year. 

135 



(Piniis.) 

Pine trees afford woods that have been more used in carpen- 
try and construction llian any others. They are to the soft 
woods what the oaks are to the hard woods, and they stand, ai 
present, with reference to all woods much as iron does to all 
metals. Fine is prized because of a combination of strength, 
elasticity, light weight, working qualities, and, until recenUy, 
wide spread availability, such as fits it for those constructions re- 
quiring the largest quantities of woods. Supplies are diminish- 
ing and some pines are already practically unattainable in many 
places. Pines are separated into soft-pines and hard-pines. 

The pines have smooth, straight, solid trunks, usually 
destitute of branches for many feet from the ground. There 
are needle-shaped, more or less cylindrical, evergreen leaves 
from one to many inches in length, gathered in clusters of 
two, three, or five, their number and the fact that they are 
thus clustered being important bases of classification. There 
are also cones of woody overlapping scales. Pines reproduce 
with difficulty,* and mature so slowly that ultimate survival of 
modern conditions must probably be as cultivated trees. 

Thirty-nine of the seventy known species of pine are found 
in the United States. These with their woods are separated 
into two groups known as ^ard a.nd soft pines. The Dantzic 
or Northern pine {Pinus sylvestris) is the principal European 
species. 

* The roots of most species die with cutting of trees. There is no power of 
producing new shoots. (The pitch ^ix\^ (Pintis rigidd) is an exception to this rule.) 
Seeds also have short-lived vitality. Trees are easily raised from fresh seeds. 

136 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 137 

SOFT-PINE. 

Soft-pine is soft, clean, light, uniform, easily worked, not 
strong, free from knots and resins, and is yet obtainable in large 
and perfect pieces. The wood is whitish and the yearly rings 
are not pronounced. The supply is divided, as obtained from 
the white pine on the one hand, and from the sugar-pine and 
all other species on the other. 

White pine (Piniis slrobus) grows in the north, central, 
and eastern United States and was formerly the important tree 
of North America. It emphasized the forest industries of 
Maine and Michigan, and methods connected with harvesting 
it have influenced logging practices in many fields. It was 
long the only softwood seriously considered by Northern 
lumbermen. Thirty per cent of the sawn timber and lumber 
used in this country in 1899 was drawn from this species.* No 
wood known to man can apply in more places than white pine. 
There are no perfect eastern substitutes, but spruce, fir, and 
even whitewood are thus employed. Sugar pine and redwood 
are used on the Pacific Coast, where eastern pine has never 
seriously competed. 

The Sugar Pine {Pinus lambcrtiana) of the Western Stales 
is a tree growing at high elevations and is so large as to take 
rank with the redwoods and other of the world's greatest trees. 
The tree produces a clean, soft, coarse wood that is upon the 
whole the best present substitute for true white pine. The 
geographical range of the tree, is, however, such as to limit the 
widest present usefulness of the woods. 

Among other minor American sources are White Pine {P. 
flexilis), Rocky Mountain Region; White or Silver Pine (P. 
monticola), Pacific Coast Region; Whitebark Pine {P. albi- 
caulis), Pacific Coast Region; Mexican White Pine (P. strohi- 
formis), Arizona into Mexico; Parry's Pine (P. quadrijolia), 
Southern California; Nut Pine (P. cemhroides), .'Arizona into 
Mexico. 

* Roth, U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 22, p. 73. 

" \\Tiite Pine Timber Supplies." U. S. S. Doc. 55-1, Vol. IV. 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



HARD-PINE. 

Ordinary hard-pine differs from soft-pine in that it is hard, 
resinous, heavy, harder to work, and very strong. It also is ob- 
tainable in large pieces. The orange-yellow wood is more or less 
figured. The annual deposits are pronounced and are separated 
into two sharply divided rings. The supply is chiefly derived 
from the longleaf, shortleaf, Cuban, and loblolly pines of the 
South Atlantic States. 

The longleaf pine (^Piiiiis pa/iisin's) is distinctly the most 
important of its group. The wood is ideal for heavy construc- 
tions. Beams, docks, trestles, and frames of cars are formed 
of it. The trees afford the greater bulk of turpentine, tar, and 
resin, or "naval stores," produced in this country.* Cuban, 
ihortleaf, and loblolly pine woods {P. Iictcropliylla, P. 
ccliinata, and P. tada) are nearly similar. Longleaf and 
Cuban pines are seldom separated, while shortleaf and 
loblolly pines are also mixed. Longleaf pine usually affords 
finer structure and more heartwood than Cuban pine. 
Strength and weight averages of both woods are in excess of 
those of shortleaf and loblolly pines. No method of invariably 
telling these four woods apart has as yet been determined. 
(Roth.) Any or all of them are practically liable to be 
delivered in response to a demand for Southern pine. Johnson 
considers shortleaf pine as good as longleaf pine of equal 
weight, and suggests environment as a means of identification. 

Palustris, signifying "swampy," is misleading, since 
long leaf pine prefers dry, sandy soil and tracts known as 
"pine barrens." Mitis refers to the soft, delicate foliage of 
shortleaf pine. Tceda signifies "torch." The trees maybe 
told by differences in their leaves and cones. 

* Manufacture of tar, pitch, etc. (See Report Chief U. S. Div. Forestry, 
1892, p. 356 ; also U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 13.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 



139 





Leaves. 


Cones. 




Number in 
Cluster. 


Length. 


Diameter 

(open;. 


Length. 


Ixjngleaf (P. palustris) 

vJuba.li (P. hetcruplivlla) 

Shoitleiif {P. etiiinala) 

Ujblolly (/'. lu-da) 


3 

2 or 3 
2 or 3 
3 


10 to 15 in. 
8 to 12 ■' 

2 to 5 " 

5 to 10 " 


4 to 5 in. 
3 I,. 5 •' 

1 to 2 " 

2 to 3 " 


6 to 10 in. 

410 7 •' 

2 

3 to 4 ■' 



Hard pine is practically the strongest building wood com- 
monly obtainal)k' in large-sized pieces in ihe United States. 
Trees are usually cu. down after having been tapped for two or 
three years. The Douglas Spruce or " Oregon Pine " (Pscu- 
dotsuga taxifolia), supplies much of the "hard pine" used on 
the Pacific Coast. 

Tar, turpentine, resin and similar products included within the term 
" naval stores," are derived chiefly from the Longleal" and Cuban pines. 
This industry is one of the leading ones in the South Atlantic States. It 
used to be thought that the tapping or " bleeding" to which the trees 
were subjected, might influence the subsequent strength and durability 
of their woods, and so firm was this belief, that specfications often ex- 
cluded " bled" lumter. Since most lumber has been "bled" and since 
mill men make :io attempt to separate the " bled " from the " unbled " 
woods, some trouble has arisen.* An exhaustive investigation! proved 
that strength, weight and shrinkage are not influenced by bleeding, and 
that "bled" is as good as "unbled" lumber. The quantities of resin 
contained in hard pine var\- greatly. Similar trees differ widely in this 
respect. The resin in heartwood varies between five and twenty per cent, 
of dry weight. Sapwood is much leaner, and .since bleeding principally 
effects sapwood, durability as well as strength is not influenced to any 
very great extent. Pine resin is called rosin. The Louisville and Nashville 
Railroad originally specified " unbled " lumber. Some " bled " lumber 
was erroneously included and the inill offered to take it back if it could 
be separated from the rest. As the railway engineers were unable to 
distinguish it, the matter was dropped. 

A confusion exists in the names of the pines. All South- 
ern pines are commercially known as yellow pines. American 
white pine is known in Europe as Yellow Pine, and all hard 
pines are often there referred to as pitch pines. Spruce Pine, 
Bull Pine and Bastard Pine are names frequently used to hide 
ignorance. The species palustris has thirty local names. Bo- 
tanical names should be used to describe the pines. 

* U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. S. 

t U. S. Forestry Bulletins Nos. S and 10. 



I40 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OE IVOOD. 

White Pine. J-'i/ms slnihus: I.iiiii. 

Nomenclature. (SuJwoith ) 

White Pine (local and C(jm- Soft Pine (Pa.). 

moTi name). Northern l^me (X. C. ). 

Weymouth Pine (!\[ass., Spruce Pine ('lenn.). 

S. C ). Pumpkin Pine. 

LocaUty. Pattermaker's Pine. 

North-central and northeastern United States, northward into 

Canada, southward to Illinois, and along the AUeghanies into 
Georgia, intermittently. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in lieight. Three to 
si.x feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Erect impressive 
form. Tufts of five soft, slender, evergreen leaves in long 
sheath. Cones four to six inches long, one inch thick, 
slightly curved. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of \\'ood. 

Heartwood cream-white, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight 
grain. Compact structure. Comparatively free from knots 
and resin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, uniform, seasons well, easy to work, nails without splitting, 
fairly durable. Piglitest and weakest of eastern United 
States pines. Shrinks less than other pines. Paints well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, matches, spars, boxes, numerous uses. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
24 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
24. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,390,000 (average of 130 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
I, 2 10,000. 

Modulus of Ivupture. 

7900 (average of 120 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
8900. 

Remarks. 

Formerly the chief lumber tree of the United States. The 
supply is rapidly dinrinishing. See remarks, ne.xt page. 

* See paj-e s! 
"The White Pine." Sp.iulding. U- S Forestry liul. Xo. 22. 
" While Pme" a Study. Mr Giffor.l Pinchol. (Century Cn.) 
" White Pme Timber Supphes." L'. S, Due. 40 Senate, 55 I, \'ul. IV'. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLEI.EAE IVOODS. 141 

White Pine. ' Pnuis Jk.xilis James. 

Noniunclaturu. (Siul\v<irtli. ) 

Wliite Piiic (Cal., Xl'v., L tah, Bull Pine (Col.). 

Col., N. M.). Western and Rocky Mountain 
Pine (Utali, Mont.). Wliite Pine (Cal.). 

Limber Pine. Limber-twig Pine. 

Rocky Mountain Pine. Aiixona Flexilis Pine. 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains, IMontana to ^Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. 
'I'ults of live rather short, rigid leaves in sheaths. 

Color, Ajipearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light, clear yellow, turning red from exposure. 
Sapwood nearly white. Close-grainetl, compact structure, 
numerous and conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural (finalities of Wood. 
Light, soft. Saws, plains, nails and paints well. Fairly durable, 
similar to Pinus strobus. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction. Similar to Pinus strobus. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

27. 
Moduhis of Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8800. 
Remarks. 

This tree forms mountain forests of considerable extent. Valued 
locally. All White Pine is quite durable even in exposed posi- 
tions. White Pine stumps (notably Pinus strobus) outlast 
those of oak and many other harder woods. It often happens 
that settlers do not attempt to remove hard wood stumps, 
knowing that they will soon rot out, but pine stumps are best 
removed at once. White Pine sidewalks are verv satisfactory, 
but the wood serves best when painted or in interiors. 



142 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD 

Sugar Pine. Pinus lumber tiana Dougl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sugar Pine (local and com- Little or Great Sugar Pine. 

mon name). (iigantic Pine, 

Big Pine, Shade Pine (Cal.). White Pine 
Locality. 

Oregon and California. Best at high altitudes (above 4000 
feet), central and northern California. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to occasionally three hundred feet in height, fifteen 
to sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Cones ten to eighteen 
inches in length, edible seeds. Sweetish exudations. A 
great tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood pinkish brown, sapwood cream-white. Coarse, 
straight-grained, compact structure. Satiny, conspicuous resin 
passages. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, easily worked, resembles white pine (Pinus sirobus). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, sashes, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 120,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Grows at as high elevations as five thousand feet or more above 
tide-water. Forms e.xtensive forests with Balsam Fir 
(^Ahies concolor). This, the grandest tree-form of the eerus, 
may be grouped, as to size, with Common Reclwoods and other 
giant growths. The immense cones, sometime? exceeding 
eighteen inches in length, hang froin the ends of the branches 
and are very striking. The sugar-like exudations form an 
active purgative known as "American false manna." and con- 
tains a peculiar saccharine principle known as piniie. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- hIEEOLELEAE IVOODS. 143 

White Pine. Pinus munticola Doiigl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli.) 

White Pine (Cal., Ncv., Little Sugar Pine, Soft Pine 

Ureg.). (Cal.).' 

Mountain Pine, Finger Cone Western White Pine. 

Pine (Cal.). Mountain Weymouth Pine. 

Silver Phie. 
Locality. 

Montana, Idaho, Pacific States, and British Columbia. 

Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet in height. 'I'wo to three feet in 
diameter, sometimes larger. Foliage resembles, but is denser 
than, white pine. Long smooth cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, sapwood nearly white. Straight- 
grained, compact, suggests white pine [Pinus s/rul/us). 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

24. 

]\Iodulus of Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8600. 
Remarks. 

Found at elevntions of seven thousand to ten thousand feet. 
Common and locallv used in northern Idaho. 



The Lodgepole Pine {Pinus murrai/ana) also called Tamarack, Tama- 
rack Pine, Murray Pine, as well as Prickly, Black and White Spruce, is 
distributed from Alaska to California and New Mexico. Tree? are often 
at altitudes of 6,000 to 11,000 feet. The remarkably tall, slender trunks 
lend themselves to ties, posts and poles. The light, straight-grained 
woods are hard to season, but easy to work. Trees are sensitive to fires 
which, however, do not normally kill seeds. The species re-establishes 
itself repeatedly after fires. — .\lso see Erickson, Forestry and Irrigation, p. 503, 
1904 

The Spruce Pine (Pinus glabra) is the least common of the lower 
Southern States pines. It seldom forms pure forests and is of relatively 
small commercial importance. The wood resembles that from the Lob- 
lolly Pine. The name Spruce Pine is popularly applied to trees of ten 
other American species {Sudworth) two of which are not pines. 



144 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF H-'OOD. 

Georgia Pine, Hard Pine, Yellow Pine, Longleaf Pine. 

Pmtis paluslris Ulill. 
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Turpentine Pine. Florida Pine. 

Rosemary Pine. Florida Longleaved Pine. 

N. Carolina Pitch Pine. Southern Pitch Pine. 

Southern Pine. Southern Hard Pine. 

Longleaved Yellow Pine. Southern Heart Pine. 

Longleaved Pitch Pine. Southern Yellow Pine. 

Long Straw Pine. Georgia Pitch Pine. 

Pitch Pine. Georgia Longleaved Pine. 

Fat Pine. Georgia Heart Pine. 

Heart Pine. Georgia Yellow Pine. 

Brown Pine. Texas Yellow Pine. 

Florida Yellow Pine. Texas Longleaved Pine. 

Locality. 

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Yirginia to .M^Jania, inter- 
mittently. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to ninety feet or more in height, one to three feet in 
diameter. Tufts of three leaves, ten to fifteen inches long, in 
long sheath. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter. Compact structure, con- 
spicuous medullary rays. Fine and even appearance in cross- 
section, quite uniform, narrow annual rings (20 or 25 per inch). 
Wide sapwood in young trees. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, tough, elastic, c'.uralile, resinous. The strongest and 
stiffest of Pines. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy constructions, ship-building, cars, docks, beams, ties, 
flooring, house-trim, many uses. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
38 (U. S. Division of Forestry).* 
43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,070,000 (average of 1230 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
2, 1 10,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,600 (average of 1160 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
16,300. 
Remarks. 

Finer and has less sapwood than Cuban pine. One of the bes 
woods for car-building. Principal lumber tree of the South 
east. 

* See page 8. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDU-.LE/JI- IVOODS. 745 

Cuban Pine. J' inns Itelemphylla Suihv. 

N(_>ii!enclature. (Siulworth. ) 

Cuban Pine, Slash Pine (local Swamp Pine (I'la., Miss.). 

and common names). Basrard Pine, Meadow Pine, 

Pitch Pine, Slie Pine, She Spruce Pine. 

Pitch Pine ((Ja., Fla.). 
Locality. 

Coast region. South Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Resembles loblolly pine. Dark straw with tinge of flesh color. 
Variable and coarse appearance in cross section. Annual rings 
are usually wide (10 or 20 per inch). 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Similar to those of longleaf and of selected ])icccs of loblolly 
j)ine. Sometimes more resinous than longleaf pine. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar 10 those of longleaf [line, from which it is seldom separated. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds jier Cubic Foot. 

39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,370,000 (average of 410 tests by U. S. Div. of Forestry).* 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,600 (average of 410 tests by V . S. Div. of Forestry).* 
Remarks 

Resembles and is marked longleaf pine (Pinus pahistris), no 
distinction being made in the lumber. 'Phe Cuban Pine 
supplies large pieces of perfect wood, thus rivaling Loblolly 
Pine (Pinus taeda) with wdiich it has probably been confused. 
The structure of the wood closely resembles that of Loblolly 
Pine. Trees reproduce rapidly, those forty years old are often 
large enough to be tapped ; this is important, because o{ 
the fact that Longleaf Pine from which "naval stores" are 
principally obtained is being destroyed so rapidly. The very 
heavy, fresh wood shrinks considerably, although with small 
in ury, during seasoning. The Cuban Pine grows ni the sub- 
tropical regions of the United States and in Hondurus an 1 
Cuba, whence the name. 

* See page S. 



146 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

„, ^, J- r»- V 11 r.- \ P'nu^ echinata Mill, 

Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine. \ ,> , ,^ , 

' ( Finus mitis Micnx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Common Yellow Pine, Hard Rosemary Pine (N. C. ). 

Pine. Virginia Yellow Pine. 

Spruce Pine (Del., Miss., North Carolina Yellow Pine. 

Ark.). North Carolina Pine. 

Bull Pine (Va. ). Carolina Pine. 

Shortshat Pine (Del.). Slash Pine. 

Pitch Pine (Mo.). Old Field Pine. 

Poor Pine (Fla. ). 

Shortleaved Yellow Pine 

(N. C). 

Locality. 

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Kansas and 

Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Si.\ty to sometimes ninety feet in height, two to sometimes 

four feet in diameter. A large erect tree; small cones have 

minute weak prickles. Leaves usually in twos from long 

sheaths. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Resembles longleaf and loblolly pines. Variable appearance in 

cross section, wide annual rings near heart. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Variable, usually hard, tough, strong, durable, resinous, lighter 

than longleaf and loblolly pines. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, construction, similar to longleaf pine. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

30- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,680,000 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,950,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10, 100 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,700. 

Remarks. 

Affords considerable pitch and turpentine, and is the principal 
species of Northern Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri. 

* See page 8. 
"Snuthem Pine." Mohr U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. 
"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 13. (Mohr.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 147 

Loblolly Pine. J'mus hci/a Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli.) 

Old FieUl Pine. Sap Pine. 

Turcli Pine. Meadow Pine. 

Rosemary Pine. Cornstalk Pine (Va.). 

Slash Pine. Black Pine. 

Longshat Pine. Foxtail Pine. 

Longshucks. Indian Pine. 

Black Slash Pine. Spruce Pine. 

Frankincense Pine. Bastard Pine. 

Shortleaf Pine. Yellow Pine. 

Bull Pine. Swamp Pine. 

Virginia Pine. Longstraw Pine. 

, ... North Carolina Pine. 

Locality. 

Delaware to Florida and westward intermittent!)- to Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet or more in height, two to sometimes 
four feet in thickness. Leaves in twos and threes. Scales or 
cones have short straight spines. A large tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine, but is variable. Coarse cross sections. 
Very wide annual rings (3 to 12 per inch). 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Resembles shortleaf pine. Selected pieces rank wiiii longluif pine. 
Representative LTses of Wood. 

Used with other Southern pines, inferior in uniformity, strength 
and durability. 

Weight of Seasoned \\'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
33 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

IModulus of Elasticity. 

2,050.000 (average of 660 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,600,000. 

IModulus of Rupture. 

11,300 (average of 650 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,500. 

Remarks. 

Grows naturally on deforested land, whence the name of Old 
Field Pine. A source of abundant and cheap material. A 
vigorous, prolific grower, probal)ly one of the pines of the future. 

* See page S. 



148 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Bull Pine, Yellow Pine, Western Yellow Pine. 

Piniis punJerusa J^aivs. 

Noiiienclature. (Sudworth.) 

Big Pine. Heavy-wooded Pine 

Longieaved Pine. Western Pitch Pine. 

Red Pine. Heavy Pine (Calif ) 

Pitch Pine. Foothills Yellow Pine. 

Southern Yellow Pine. Montana Black Pine. 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains, westward intermittently to Pacific Ocean. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, six 
to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. Thick, deeph' furrowed 
bark. Leaves in tufts of threes. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood is light red, sapwood nearly white. Rather 
coarse grain, compact structure. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Variable, heavy, hard, strong, brittle, not durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers, fuel, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,260,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,200. 
Remarks. 

Ponderosa, signifying "heavy," refers to great size. Trees are 
often killed by beetles (Dendroctonus ponderosw) and the wood 
of such trees later assumes a bright blue color, due to fungi 
introfiuced or enabled by the beetles. These "blue woods" 
can be used for some purposes. (Also see von Schrenk, U. S. 
Bureau Plant Industry No. 36.) 

Pond Pine {Pinus sTotina) is the Marsh Pine of the woodsman, but it 
is not distinguished at the mills where it really furnishes much of the 
lumber that is marked North Carolina Pine. The Pond Pine grows 
along the Atlantic Coast from Albermarle Sound south to Florida. It is 
almost constantly in sight of the railway trains. The six or eight inch 
long leaves are in tufts of three. The cones sometimes remain on the 
trees for several years. The trees are now bled for turoentine. Othrr 
names are Meadow, Loblolly, Spruce. Bastard, and Bull Pine. (Also see 
Roth Forestry Bulletin No. 13.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIF.S-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. MO 

Norway Pine, Red Pine. Pinus rcsinosa Ail. 

NoiUL-nclaturu. (Sudworlh. ) 

Norway Pine, Red Pine (local Hard Pine (Wis.). 

and common names). Canadian Red Pine (Eng.). 

Locality. 

Southern Canada, northern United States from Maine to 
Minnesota, Pennsylvania. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to ninety feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. 
Reddish blossoms and bark on branchlets. Leaves in twos 
from long sheaths. A tall, straight tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood light red, sapwood yellow to white. Numerous 
pronounced medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, elastic, not durable, resinous. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Piles, telegraph poles, masts, flooring, and wainscoting. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

31 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

30. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,620,000 (average of 100 tests by U. S. Forestry Division).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

9,100 (average of 95 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,500. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes commercially handled with white pine. Unimpor- 
tant as regards turpentine and resin, in spite of specific name, 
which signifies resinous. Long sheaths enable children to 
make chains of leaves. 

* Pee page 8. 

The Monterey Pine {Pinus radiata) is best developed near Monterey. 
California, where it is often 100 feet high, symmetrical or distorted ac- 
cording to exposure. It is widely transplanted for landscape effects. The 
wood is occasionally cut into lumber. 

The Digger, Grayleaf, Gray or Sabine Pine (Pinus sabiniana) of north- 
cm and central Califomian foothills affords a poor and seldom-used wood. 
The nuts were prized by Digger Indians, whence the name. The tree- 
fonn is unusual; trunks are forked or divided, and the sparse grayi.sh 
foliage is, for the most part, near the ends of the branches. The tree yields 
a turpentine used in medicine. (See " abietene," U. S. Dispensatory-.) 

The Scrub or Jack Pine (Pinus divaricato) of the North Central and 
.•\tlantic States yields a wood classed among lighter "hard pines" and 
chiefly used for ties and fuel. The species is hardy in some semi-arid 
regions where other pines will not grow. The Scrub or Jersey Pine (Pinus 
virginiana) grows from Manhattan Island south and west to Alabama and 
Tennessee. The inferior wood is used for fuel, water pipe and coarse 
lumber. 



ISO THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OP IVOOD. 

Pitch Pine. Fmi/s rigida Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Pitch Pine (local and common Yellow Pine (Pa.). 

name). Black Pine (N. C. ). 

Longleaved Pine, Longschat Black Norway Pine. 

Pine (Del.). Rigid Pine, Sap Pin& 

Hard Pine (Mass.). 
Locality. 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Georgia, Kentucky. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to sometimes eighty feet in height, one to sometimes 
three feet in diameter. Rigid flattened leaves in threes from 
short sheaths. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, thick sapwood yellow to nearlv 
white. Coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, very- 
resinous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Coarse lumber, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10, 500. 

Remarks. 

Rigida refers to rigid leaves. The name " Pitch Pine " is some- 
times applied to all of the Southern pines. The name is yet 
more widely applied in foreign markets. Sometimes called 
Fat Pine. The tree is hardy. It .sometimes grows on rocks 
and sometimes over sea sands, binding them together. It will 
survive occasional overflows of sea water. Resins present to 
saturation, injure wood for constructions, while not themselves 
so good as resins from other species. Young trees sprout from 
stumps but do not always live long. The resi:tance to forest 
fires is surprisingly great. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 151 

Northern Pine, Scotch Pine, Dantzic Pine. Pinus sylveslns Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Dantzic Fir (from place of Stettin Fir (from place of 

shipment). shipment). 

Rigi Fir (from [ilace of ship- Swedish Fir. 

ment). Scots or Scottish Fir. 

Memel Fir (from jilace of Northern Fir. 

shipment). Redwood, Yellowwood. 
Deal (Local). 

Locality. 

Widespread in Europe, as Scotland, Germany, and I\ussia; also 
Asia. Naturalized in United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter; 
sometimes larger. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish white to yellowish white, sapwood similar. 
Even straight grain (varies with locality). 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately light, hard, tough, and elastic, easily worked (varies 
with locality). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, planks, beams, masts, heavy timber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
34 (Lazlett *) (varies with locality). 

Modulus of Elasticity. , 

1,680,000 (Lazlett) (varies with locality). 
1,800,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7000 (Thurston) (varies with locality). 

Remarks. 

Principal soft wood of Europe. Widely distributed : local 
peculiarities once thought to denote different species. Fields 
tributary to Dantzic and Rigi afford best wood. Wood 
" equal to Dantric Fir " sometimes specified. The best European 
equivalent for White Pine is the Stone Pine {Pinus cenbra), 
said to best developed in Switzerland. It affords a smooth, 
fine-grained wood that is often seen in carving. The Bhotan 
Pine (Pinus excelsa) of the Himalayan region is the best repre- 
sentative in Asia. This wood resembles true white pine vers- 
closely, and the trees are similar in size and habit. 

* Table CLXVII, p. 41-^. 



KAURI PINE. 

(Dammara.) 

This New Zealand tree affords an excellent substitute for 
northern pine. Although not true pine, it belongs to the same 
family as the pine and other conifers. The light, strong, 
durable, elastic wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suit- 
able for masts. The tree is described as tall and very hand- 
some. The tough leather-like leaves, about one inch in length, 
suggest those of the box. Fresh exudations resemble venice- 
turpentine. A fossil found on Martha's Vineyard has been quite 
positively identified as that of a Kauri Pine tree. 

This species is universally noted for a resin that possesses 
the quality of uniting with linseed oil more perfectly at lower 
temperatures than most others employed in the manufacture of 
varnish. Kauri resin is thus one of the most valuable constitu- 
ents of good varnish, and has sold for as much as one thousand 
dollars to fifteen hundred dollars a ton. The best resin occurs 
as a fossil, and is collected by digging over areas known to 
be fruitful, but from which trees have long since disappeared. 
The deposits of resins exist a few feet below the surface. The 
pieces, which vary in size from small pebbles to lumps as large 
as eggs, are scraped or otherwise cleansed by natives in the 
field. One mass of two hundred and twenty pounds weight 
has been reported.* There are also fresh-product and semi- 
fossil resins. 

* This large mass is mentioned by R. Ingham Clark, F.R.G.S., in "Notes 
on Fossil Resins," published by C. Letts & Co., London. 

152 



EXOGENOUS SERIES—NEEDLELEAE IVOODS. 15.3 

Kauri Pine. Dammara australis. 

Nomenclature. 

Kauri Pine (local and gen- Cowdie Pine (New Zealand 
eral). and many localities). 

Locality. 

New Zealand. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in 
diameter, occasional specimens much larger Small leaves 
resembling those of box. A tall handsome tree. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Heartwood straw-colored, fine, strai,>;lit grain, with silky lustre 
suggesting satinwood. " Mottled kauri " is separated and used 
for cabinet work. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately hard, light, elastic, strong, seasons well, works 
readily, receives high polish, is quite free from knots, it stands 
well, wears evenly, and has an agreeable odor. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Carpentry, masts. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
33 (Lazlett *) (varies with locality). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,810,000 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The species is widely known by reason of its resin. 



* Table CLXXI, p. 426. 



A true gum dissolves in water, whereas a true resin yields to oil or 
spirit. The name resin is seldom used by varnish makers, and the name 
gum applies commercially to many substances that are actually resins. 
Varnish resins may be roughly divided as they unite with oil or spirit. 
Oil varnish differs from spirit varnish in that oil takes permanent place as 
part of the whole, whereas spirit simply dissolves the varnish ingredients 
and then evaporates from them. Kauri is one of the best of the oil- 
varnish resins. Shellac is an equally useful spirit-vamish resin. A 
varnish differs from a paint in that a varnish is a solution, whereas a 
paint is a mechanical mixture. 



{Picea.) 

The spruces form forests in Europe and North America. 
The black spruce {P. nigra) and the white spruce {P. alba) 
predominate in eastern United States, while the white spruce 
{P. engehnanni) is important in the West. The Norway 
spruce, or white fir [P. cxcclsa), is the chief European species. 
American trees prefer Northern ranges characterized by short 
summers and long winters. The red spruce {Picea rubens) is now, 
by reason of the diminution of the Siupply of white pine in north- 
ern New England, the most important timber tree of that district. 

The soft, clean, light, close-grained, satiny woods resemble, 
and are the best Eastern substitutes for, white pine. Spruce is 
the principal structural wood in many places in New England. 
It is also used for paper pulp. The valuable western spruces 
are less familiar because of their distances from the best markets 
and because of other woods for which considerable demands 
have already been established. The eastern product is divided 
commercially and according to appearance, but irrespective of 
species, into white and black spruce. These terms depend some- 
times, at least, on the wide and narrow rings of the black spruce 
{P. nigra). It should be remembered that spruce and fir woods 
are often confused with one another, and that there are trees, as 
the Douglas spruce and Kauri pine or spruce, that are called, but 
are not, true spruces. European spruce is often locally known 
as white deal. 

Spruce trees have single, sharp-pointed, short leaves, 
pointing everywhere, and keeled above and below so as to 
appear four-sided; the cones hang down. Spruce may be dis- 
tinguished from the pines, firs, and hemlocks by the fact that 
pine leaves are longer and in clusters, that hemlock leaves are 
flat, blunt, and two-ranked, and that fir cones point upward. 
The genus picea has twelve species, five of which are North 
American. The resins of the black and red spruce are used 
as confections. 

15+ 



PLATE 27. BLACK SPRLCK (/a,,/ m^r,;;. 







EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 



155 



The insect and fungus enemies of spruce trees cause great 
losses, and liave received much attention.* Dead and fallen 
trunks are sometimes so numerous as to obstruct passage 
through the forest. t The largest and best trees seem most 
liable to attack. Dr. Hopkins states that the " spruce-destroying 
beetle" (Dendroctonus piceaperia) is accountable for much of 
this damage as accomplished in the East. These beetles gain 
entrance through crevices in the l)ark and cut grooves upon the 
sensitive outer sapvvood. Tiie resins that collect in the freshly 
cut tunnels arc ejected by the beetle, and form what are known 
as "pitch tubes." These, together with the wood particles, 
serve to mark trees that have been recently attacked. There is 
an intimate connection between the attacks of insects and those 
of fungi. Fungi may lodge in and infect wounds that have been 
caused by insects. Von Schrenk associates many species of 
fungi with living and dead spruce trees. Much wood remains 
.-ound for some time after the physical death of the tree, and 
is clearly available for lumber and paper pulp. 

The following table sets forth the primary distinctions be- 
tween the spruces and the pines, firs, and hemlocks: 



Names. 


Arrangement of Leaves. 


Shape of Leaves. 


Cones. 


Pines (Piniis) 


In tufts or clusters. 


Comparatively long. 




Spruce (Picfii). . . . 


Single, scattered.point 


Short, sharp ends, 


Hang down, 1 to 




in all directions. 


keeled above and 
below. Somewhat 
four-sideil. 


6 inches lung. 


Vir (A/lies) 


Single, scattered, ap- 


Sliort, blunt ends, flat. 


Stand erect. 2 to 




pear somewhat as in 




4 inches long. 




two ranks. 






Hemlock (Tsiiga).. 


Single, scattered, ap- 


Short, blunt ends, flat. 


Hang down. | to 




pear as in two ranks. 




I inch long. 



* " Insect Enemies of Spruce in the Northeast" and " Insect Enemies of the 
Forests of the Northwest." — Hopkins, U. S. Div. Entomology. Bulletin 2S and 21; 
also " Diseases New I-ngland Conifers,'' von Schrenk, f. S. Div. \cgetable 
Physiology and Pathology, Bulletin No. 25. 

t "Windfalls" may result from insects, fungi, age, or tornadoes. Trees are 
piled upon one another like jackstraws. Trunks and limbs intermingle and are 
sometim* penetrated by wiry, second-growth saplings. Passage through such a 
district is made by cautiously walking back and forth, up and down, over trunks 
and limbs. It is sometimes impossible to proceed more than two or three miles 
daily in a straight line. The writer was within sound of the creation of one 
windfall by tornado. Snow, "Transactions \m. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1899," 
also Pa. Dept. Agriculture, Third Annual Report. The term " Blow-down " is 
sometimes used. 



T56 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF tVOOD. 

_, , ^ ( Picea tiiera Link. 

Black Spruce. -j p^^^^ ^,^*^^^^„^ j^j^^^ 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth.) 

Spruce (Vt.), Yew Pine, Spruce White Spruce (W. Va.). 

Pine (W. Va.). He Balsam (Del., N. C). 

DoubleSpruce (Me.,Vt.,Minn.). Water Spruce (Me.). 
Blue Spruce (Wis.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Minnesota, Alleghany Mountains to North 
Carolina. Best in Canada. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Conical shape with straight trunk. Dark foliage. Cones 
remain for several years, being thus distinct from white spruce. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish, nearly white; sapwood lighter. Straight 
grain, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant. Not durable when 
exposed. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, ship-building, piles, posts, railway 
ties, paddles, oars, "sounding-boards," paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

I, 560,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

A substitute for soft pine. Resin is used as a confection. 



The red spruce (Picea rubens) is the principal lumber spruce of 
northern New England. It is fifty to eighty feet high, and two of 
three feet in diameter. Large quantities of the light, close-grained, 
reddish, satiny wood are cut into lumber or used in the manufacture 
of paper pulp. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 157 

,,,, .^ „ ( Picea alba Link. 

White Spruce. -^ j,^^^^^ canadensis Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sucl worth.) 

Single Spruce (Me., Vt., Skunk Spruce (Wis., New 

Minn.). Eng.). 

Bog Spruce, Cat Spruce Spruce, Double Spruce (Vt.). 

(N. Kng. ). Pine (Hudson Bay). 

Locality. 

Northern United States, Canada to Labrador and Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, one to two feet in 
diameter, occasionally larger. Comjiact, symmetrical, conical 
shape. Foliage lighter than black spruce. Cones fall sooner 
than those of black spruce. Whitish resin. 

Color. Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow, sapwood similar. Straight-grained, 
numerous prominent medullary rays. Compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong (similar to Black Spruce). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, etc. (similar to Black Spruce). 

Weight of Seasoned ^^'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



iModulus of Flasticity. 

1,450,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Notable as resident of high latitudes. Chief tree of arctic 
forests. Wood, used similarly to black spruce, is substituted 
for white pine. 



It is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce 
trees. The foliage of the former is darker as a whole, and there are dif- 
ferences in shape and persistence of cones. The names double spruce and 
single spruce are without evident foundation. Woods exhibit similar 
qualities and are classed together by lumbermen. 



158 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Spruce. Picea e^igelmaiuii Engelm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Spruce (Ore., Col., White Pine (Idaho), Moun- 

Utah, Idaho). tain Spruce (Mont.). 

Balsam, Engelmann's Spruce 
(Utah). 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountain region, Montana to Mexico, Wa.shington, 
Oregon, and British Columbia (high elevations). 

Features of Tree. 

Frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and some- 
times higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low 
shrub. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. Close, straight 
grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, charcoal, fuel. Bark rich in tannin, sometimes used 
for tanning. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 140,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8100. 

Remarks. 

Notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring 
at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. A valuable 
tree of the central and southern Rocky Mountain region. 



EXOGENOUS SBRIES-NEEDUILEAE IVOODS. 159 

Sitka Spruce. Picea silchensis Traulv. and Mayer. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sitka Spruce (local and com- Menzies Spruce, 

inon name). Western Spruce. 

Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., (ireat Tideland Spruce. 

\Va.sh.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast region, Alaska to central California. E.xtencls 
inland about fifty miles; prefers low elevations. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more 
in diameter. Flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical 
cones, thick scaly reddish-brown bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse- 
grained, satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

2626. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

A giant among spruces. Forms an extensive coast-belt forest. 



DOUGLAS FiR, DOUGLAS SPRUCE OR RED FER. 

(Pseudotsuga.) 

This species affords the " hard pine " of the Pacific Coast. 
The trees, among the most important of the West, form almost 
pure forests in western Washington and Oregon where they are 
best developed. They grow at high altitudes, as in Colorado: 
specimens are found in Texas and Mexico, and isolated experi- 
ments have succeeded in the Adirondacks. 

The wood suggests true hard pine or larch in properties, 
appearance and applications. It is almost wholly heartwood, 
with pronounced yearly rings, and is of a yellow or light red 
color. It is strong, stiff, durable, and often difficult to work; 
it is the heavy construction wood of its vicinity; while the pos- 
sibility of easily obtaining such material in pieces two feet square 
and one hundred feet long renders it one of the principal di- 
mension timbers of the world. Douglas fir is employed in heavy 
constructions for posts, poles, piles, masts, railway ties, lumber, 
flooring, finish and fuel. Lumbermen recognize "red" and 
" yellow " varieties. The former, derived from younger trees, 
is coarser and less valuable. Douglas fir wood is marketed under 
the names of Oregon, hard and Pacific pine, red fir, red spruce, 
yellow fir, etc. The trees, among the greatest known to man, 
are said to have reached heights of three hundred and fifty feet 
and diameters of ten or twelve feet. They are very hardy, and, 
like redwoods, likely to survive commercial extinction. The 
bark, which is sometimes two feet thick, is rich in tannin. 

The tree, although known as Oregon Pine and Douglas Fi", 
is neither true pine nor fir but a sort of bastard hemlock. The 
name pseudotsuga is from pseudo or false and tsuga or hemlock. 
The species was earlier classed as Pinus taxifolia and Abies 
taxifolia. Some notes respecting the difiiculties connected with 
the nomenclature of this species are on pages 23 and 24 of Sud- 
worth's Check List. The genus has three species. The much 
less important Big Cone Spruce {Pseudotsuga macrocar pa) of 
California yields inferior wood. 



VLATE 28. DOUCLAS Sl'RUCl", {!'s,:i.to/sii);<i laxi folia). 







-^•' .it. i *. ' ^ *' ^ I ■I ft.l i ' ^ W .."> j^ 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NBBDLELEAF IVOODS. lOi 

Y^ , o rv 1 T>- S Pseudolsuira taxi folia Lam. 

Douglas Spruce, Douglas Fir. „ , , ■^ /> , ■ ^ 
° '^ ° / Fsetidotsuga Douglasii Carr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Oregon I'inc (Cal., Wash., Douglas Tree, Cork-barked 

Oreg. ). Douglas Spruce. 

Red Fir, Yellow Fir (Oreg., Spruce, Fir (Mont.). 

Wash., Idaho, Utah, I\Iont., Red Pine (Utah, Idaho, Col.). 

Col.j. Puget Sound Pine (Wash.). 
Locality. 

Pacific coast region, Mexico to British Columbia. Best in 
western Oregon and Washington. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet 
in height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. 
Older bark rough-gray, often looking as though braided. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light red to yellow, scant sapwood nearly white. 
Comparatively free from resins, pronounced variable rings 
(fi)ur to forty per inch). 

Structural Qualilies of Wood. 

Variable, usuall_\- hard, strong, difficult to work, durable. Splits 
easily. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

36 (average of 20 specimens by Soule).f 

32- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

i,68o,oco (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by Soule).j 

1,824,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7,900 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
9,334 (average of 21 specimens by Soule).f 
12,500. 

Remarks. 

Used similarly to hard pine. Lumbermen divide into red and 
yellow woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, 
lighter, and more desirable. These distinctions probably due 
to age. One of the world's greatest trees. 

* See page 8. 

■f Professor Frank Soule, University of California. Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., 
p. 552. Vol. XXIX. 



{Abies.) 

Several of the fir-trees of the western United States attain 

to very great size. The silver fir {Abies grandis) and the 

white fir {Abies concolor) supph' much wood in the section in 

which they grow. The balsam fir {Abies balsaniea) of the 

Eastern States is of some commercial importance. 

Fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural 

qualities. It may be told from spruce as well as from pine 

A » and larch by the fact that fir 

vNs ?.^ '^ has no resin-ducts. The bal- 

\^' ■"" sam fir is distinguishable by 

C "- • ' clear liquid resin which ap- 

V ■; '■ ,. •' ^' ' , -"' y- pears in blisters in the bark. 

^ '■'-'■''"' ' ^ ' -' ■ " -■' '-^'"^ 

'-^ '■' ■'^ ^ The coarse, weak wood is 

^;^r^-^ cleaner than the bark would 

,^^;~< _'\ indicate. Spruce and fir woods 

^T^S^ , -I are often confused in the 

'x~ "-" ' United States, while pine, 

; spruce, and fir are similarly 

Tj.,-.,. !?,„ , 4^- L , 1 confounded in Europe. The 

Balsam J<ir {Ahic-s balsamea). _ J^ 

great sizes often attained by 
Western Species rank them with Redwoods, Douglas Firs and 
Giant Cedars as nceciing special logging methods.* Platforms 
are arranged so that large trees can be cut through, far up from 
the ground, where defects common near the roots are excluded. 
Trees are felled so as to strike uniformly along most of their 
lengths as otherwise the wood would break or splinter. These 
large logs are gathered or " yarded " by engines so powerful as to 
operate against all usual obstructions, and the logs finally leave 
the forests, moved by endless cables, over roads termed skidways. 
Steam is employed and the processes involve many features not 
usual in Eastern fields. 

Fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that 
stand erect (see footnote under spruce). 

♦Bishop, " Kngineering Magazine," Vol. XIII, p. 70; Gannett, "National 
Geographic Magazine," Vol. X, No. 5, May, 1899. 



EXOGENOUS SERIFS-NEEnU-.LE/tF H^OODS- 163 

Balsam Fir, Common Balsam Fir. Aiws Uihamea Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Balsam (Vt., N. H., N. Y.)- Blister Pine, Fir I'ine (W. 

Fir Tree (Vt.). ^''^- )• 

Balm of (likad (Del.). Single Spruce, Silver Fine 

Canada Balsam (N. C). (Hudson Bay), 

lialm of (iilead Fir (X. Y., 
Fa.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota to Virginia, nortlnvartl intermittently into Canada. 

Features of 'Free. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Sometimes low shrub. Blisters in smooth bark contain thick 
balsam. FLrect cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Cirain of Wood. 

Heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, 
compact structure, satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Occasionally used as inferior lumber. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

23- 
IModulus of F.lasticity. 

1, 160,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7300. 

Remarks. 

Scattered throughout Northern pineries. Cut when of sufficient 
size and sold with pine or spruce. Cultivated in gardens. 
Exudations known as Canada Bal.sam used in medicine. The 
poplar (P. balsamifera) is also called Balm of Gilead. 



164 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Great Silver Fir, White Fir. Abies gmudis LinJl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Silver Fir (Mont., Idaho). Yellow Fir (IMont., Idaho). 

Oregon \Miite Fir, Western Lowland Fir. 

\\'hite Fir (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Vancouver region, northwestern United States. Best in west 
Washington and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two 
to five feet in diameter. Leaves deep green above, silvery 
below, usually curved. A handsome tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, com- 
pact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

22. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7000. 

Remarks. 

Forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes 
much lumber locally. Best on rich bottom lands, but found at 
altitudes of five thousand and six thousand feet. The balsam 
secreted in blisters on young bark is used in meiiicine. 
Grandis refers to the aireat stature of the tree. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES—NEEDLF.LEAF IVOODS. 165 

White Fir, Balsam Fir. Abies cuncolur Parry. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth). 

Silver Fir, Jklsam (Cal.). White Balsam (Utah). 

California White Fir (Cal. ). Balsam Tree (Idaho). 

Black Gum, Bastard Pine Colorado Wliite Fir, C'oncolor 
(Utah). White Fir. 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains and coast ranges, high elevations. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to live 
feet in diameter. Pale green or silvery foliage. Bark blisters 
filled with clear pilch. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or 
darker. Coarse-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, without odor. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Butter-tubs, packing-bo.xes, lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,290,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Not always distinguished from the species Abies grandis. 



i66 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Red Fir. Abies magntfica Rlurr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

California Red Fir, California Magnificent Fir, Golden Fir 
Red-bark Fir (Cal.). (Cal.). 

Shasta l'"ir (Cal.). 

Locality. 

California, vicinity of Mount Shasta. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten 
feet in diameter. Large erect cones. Beautiful form. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. Rather close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury 
in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Construction, sills, lumber, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

940,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELE/lh IVOODS. 1O7 

Red Fir, Noble Fir. .'lAius nobilis Lindl. 

Ni)mcnclature. (Sudworth.) 

Noble Silver Fir, Noble Red Bigtree, Feather-cone, I\ed 

Fir. Fir (Cal.). 

l.aich (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Northwestern United States. Cultivated in Fast. 

Features of Tree. 

One to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter. 
Leaves curved. Large, beautiful tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. Rather close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, hard, strong, elastic. 

Representative Uses of "Wood. 
Fitted for house-trimmings. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Flasticity. 

1,800,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

22, 200. 

Remarks. 

Grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). With other fir 
forms extensive forests. Sold as larch. 



Peters, '-Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 9 (Sept. 1902), pp. 362, 366. 



HEMLOCK. 

(Tsugii.) 

The hemlocks are distributed over northern United States 
from Maine to Michigan, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the 
Pacific coast. They generally mingle with broad-leaved and 
other needle-leaved species, but occasionally form pure forests 
by themselves. 

The wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, 
brittle, liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp 
and splinter. It holds nails firmly and is used for coarse 
lumber, dimension pieces, paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap 
finish. It should not be relied upon to receive shocks. The 
bark is used in tanning. A prejudice has existed against hem- 
lock. This is because hemlock was originally compared with 
white pine, spruce and fir. The decrease in the supply of better 
woods has increased the importance of hemlock. 

Western hemlock {Tsuga heterophylla) has suffered because of 
the reputation of Eastern hemlock {Tsuga canadensis). It is a 
better wood, stronger and quite free from warp and shake. West- 
ern hemlock is sometimes effected by black streaks about three 
fourths of an inch broad and three inches long. These are with 
the grain, and are therefore very evident save in cross sections. 
Hemlock discolored in this way is sometimes known as "Black 
Hemlock." True Black or Alpine hemlock {Tsuga mertensiana) 
grows at high altitudes (around 10,000 feet), and in the far north 
and has not yet been cut. Western hemlock is made into boxes, 
floors, mill frames and paper pulp. It has a pronounced odor 
and is seldom attacked by insects or rodents; it is good for grain 
bins. The wood is seldom sold under its true name, but is mar- 
keted as second grade " red fir " or the like. The name " Alaska 
pine " has been suggested to avoid the influences of prejudice. 
Trees are very vigorous and it is probable that the wood will 
become better known. 

Hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen 
leaves, appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot- 
note under spruce) and by the red inner bark. 



PLATE 29. II 1:ML0C K {'J'siiga). 




'-jMBBMBMnnm 



Kenilock Tree {Tsiiga canadensis). Western llemluck Tree (7". keterophylla) 

Hemlock Foliage (Tstiga canadensis'). (6500 feet above sea-level.) 

Hemlock Woo^l [^Tsw'a canadensis). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 169 

Hemlock. 'I'suga canadensis. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Hemlock (local and common N. Y., Pa., N. J., W. Va. , 

name). N. C, S. C). 

Spruce (Pa., W. Va.). Spruce Pine (Pa., Del., Va., 

Hemlock Spruce (Vt., R. I., N. C, Ga.). 

Locality. 

Eastern and central Canada, southward to North Carolina and 
Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in 
diameter. Short leaves, green above and white beneath. 
Straight trunk, beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartvvood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. Coarse, 
pronounced, usually crooked grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work, 
retains nails firmly, splintery. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic P^oot. 

26. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,270,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

Canadensis refers to Canada, the locality where tree excels. 

The Southern or Carolina Hemlock (T. caroliniana) resembles Hemlock. 

The Western Hemlock ( 7". heterophylla, Alaska to California) attains height of 

180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is said to afford heavier and better wood. 

This tree is known by the following names (Sudworth); 

Western Hemlock, Hemlock Spruce Prince Albert's Fir, Western Hemlock 
(Cal.). Fir, California Hemlock Spruce 

Hemlock (Oreg.. Idaho, Wash.). (England). 

Alaska Pine (Northwestern Lumber- 
man). 

<'The Western Hemlock." Allen, U. S, Forestry Bureau Bulletio No y^. 



LARCH. TAMARACK. 

{Larix.) 

Larch was well known in the olden time, and was prized in 
Europe and the Orient. The two principal American species 
are also called tamarack and hackmatack. The Eastern larch 
or tamarack {L. americand) prefers peculiar low, wet areas 
known as tamarack swamps. The Western tree (Z. occidcii- 
talis) resembles the European species and prefers dry places. 
Although trees can exist in ver)' wet swamps they do not do as 
well as where moisture conditions are less excessive. A tree 
required forty-eight years to reach a diameter of two inches 
under the first condition, while another tree was eleven inches 
thick at the end of thirty-eight years, where there was less water. 

Larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. It 
is noted by Pliny and other ancient authors.* Vitruvius 
mentions a bridge that, having burned, was replaced by one 
of larch, because that wood would not burn as readily. + The 
foundation-piles of Venice are said to be of larch. .j: It should 
be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not 
always beyond question. American larch resembles, if it does 
not equal, true foreign wood. The trees are tall and straight, 
but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber, almost the 
entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles. The 
exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and 
hard pine in weight and appearance. 

Larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is 
deciduous. The little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are 
of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime. The 
appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the 
winter is very gloomy. All larch trees tolerate less water than 
occurs in most larch swamps. Trees are vigorous growers. 
The genus deserves more attention. Larix is from a Celtic 
word Lar, meaning fat. 

* Pliny, XVI, 43-49 and XVI, 30. f Vitruvius, .II, g. 

t Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 310. Also Forestry in Minn , Green. 

170 



I'l.ATK 30. I ARCH (l..,ri.K). 



150^--'*f?3r 




l.uicli Trees ill Winler. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES -NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 171 

„ . T L ( Larix aviericana Michx. 

Tamarack, Larch, -j j_^^^^.^ j^^^^-,^^ ^^„ j^^^^ ^.-^^^.^ 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack, Larcli, American Black Larch, Red Larcli 

Larch (local and common (Minn., Mich.). 

names). Juniper (Me., Canada). 

Hackmatack (Me., N. 11., 

Mass., R. I., Del., 111., Mich.) 

Locality. 

Northern United States and southern Canada, east from Great 
Lakes. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter. 
Short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. A slender tree, 
winter aspect gloomy. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse conspic- 
uous grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, 
llagstaffs, etc. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,790,000. 
Modulus of Ru])ture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

Practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts, 
masts, etc. : seldom cut into lumber in consequence. Grows 
in liglit swamps often extensive and kno\\n as tramarack 
swamps. (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, 
page 157.) Lumbermen note two varieties, red and white 
Tamarack. The distinction, based upon the color of the 
heartwood, is probably due to differences in age. Red-hearted 
loars make the more durable lumber. 



172 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Tamarack, Larch. Larix occidentalis. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack, Larch (local and Western Larch, Great Western 

common names). Larch, Red American Larch. 

Hackmatack (Idaho, Wash.). Western Tamarack (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Washington and Oregon, intermittently to Montana. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one- 
half to four feet in diameter. A large tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, 
compact structure, annual rings pronounced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, strong, durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to 
L. americana. 

Weight of Seasoned ^^'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2, 300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

17,400. 
Remarks. 

A valuable tree of the Columbian basin. Differs from L. ameri- 
cana in that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. 



The European Larch (Larix europcea) is a native of Central 
Europe. The trees thrive upon dry soil and are used in American 
landscape work. They are good needleleaf trees to plant near houses 
because they lose their leaves during the winter. The wood is 
similar to that obtained from American species. The European larch 
yields the Venice turpentine of commerce. This substance, once 
collected through Venetian markets, is now largely drawn from 
America. 



PLATE 31. CEDAR {(->,//•/«, 77;«r,/, etc.). 





t" ■"■' 'Sr -'■.-'■ » , . " 


'• 1 


^- #>|3s^- *l;,^'- _,■ M 






^^^w^ 






Cedar of Lebanon (Cedriis libani). 

Red Cedar Bark {^uniperits -'irginiana'). 

White Cedar Wood ( Thuya occidcntalis). 



Foliage of Wliite Cedar ( T. occidcntalis). 
Foliage of Red Cedar (y. virginiana). 
Tree of Red Cedar {J. virginiana.). 



(Cedrus, Thuya, Chamcccyparis, Libocedr us, Juniper us.) 

Cedar was a name first applied to the true or Lebanon 
cedars {Cedrus) of the Eastern continent, but later to certain 
Arborvitais ( Thuya), Junipers {Junipcrus), and Cypresses 
(C liamcecyparis), and other trees (see " Spanish Cedar," page 
12S) from which durable, fine-grained, more or less fragrant 
woods, known as cedar, are obtained. Cedar was highly- 
prized by the ancients, who employed it in costly constructions, 
such as the temples of Solomon and of Diana at Ephesus.*t 
Woods known as cedar are divided into so-called Red and 
White Cedars. 

Red Cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fra- 
grant, and of a pinkish-red color. Much wood is derived from 
the Red Cedars, Juiiipcrus virginiana, Juiiipcrus scopulorum, 
and Junipcrus barbadotsis, of the Eastern, Western, and 
Southern States respectively. Although seen in construction, 
red cedar is chiefly used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and 
cigar-boxes. One hundred and twenty-five thousand trees 
(125,000) % are annually required for lead-pencils alone. The 
waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of 
camphor to protect woolens. The demand is greater than the 
supply. Trees are easily grown on almost any soil. Trees 
and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease 
after trees have been felled; the wood is then durable. § 

White Cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not " red 



* It is probable that the ancients also user! the word Cedar somewhat generally. 

t Pliny, 16, 213 and 16. 216. 

+ Notes on Red Cedar. Mohr. Bui. 31. U. S. Division Forestry (Gifford 
PiTichot, Forester). 

g Several of the funijnid parasites cause swellings known as "cedar apples." 
The branches usually die. Professor von Schrenk recognizes two diseases of the 
wood, white rot (Polvporus jiiniperus Schrenk) and red rot (Polvporus earneus). 
(Bulletin No. 21, Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. 
Agriculture.) 

173 



174 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

cedar," and is obtained from several valuable trees.* The 
arborvitaes (7". Occident alls) vary in size from large bushes used 
in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered 
for wood. They are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known 
as cedar swamps. t The giant arborvitai (7". gigantea), noted 
for its great girth, and the yellow and Lawson Cypresses, are 
important Pacific coast species. The incense cedar, while 
much subject to fungus trouble, is also prized.]: White cedar 
wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in exposed positions 
as ties and shingles. 

Arborvitaes {Thuya) have very small overlapping leaves 
that form flat rods or fan-like sprays. The cones are oblong, 
less than one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight 
scales separate or open when ripe. The cypresses {CJtamcscy- 
paris) exhibit similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, 
roughened, close, or solid globules. The Junipers [Juinpcnis) 
often, but not always, bear bluish-black berries powdered with 
a whitish-blue bloom. The true cedars {Ccdrus) differ from 
tlie others in that they have simple needle leaves, an inch, 
more or less, in length, together with cones erect and several 
inches in length. The Deodar or cedar of India is of this 
genus. The principal American red and \\hite cedars are as 
follows: 

Red Cedar. White Cedar. 

Reil Cedar (Jumperus-Arginiana'). Arborvit^e (T/iiiya occidmtalis). 

RliI Cedar (Jiiniperits scopulorum'). Canoe Cedar {Thuya gigantL-a\. 
Red Cedar {Juniperiis barhadensis). White Cedar {Chamacyparis thyoides). 

Port Orford Cedar (ChanKicyparis law- 

soniana). 
Yellow Cedar {Chnmacyparis nutkaensis). 
Incense Cedar [Libodecriis deciirrens). 
Spanish Cedar. (See page 12S.) 

* Heartwood often light grayish brown. 

f Trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding, but apart from, such 
swamps. Vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps, which are 
often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges. (Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., 
Vol XXIX, p. 157.) 

X Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDI.ELEAF IVOODS. '75 

Red Cedar. Jimipems virginiana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Cedar (local and common Savin (Mass., R. I., N. Y., 

name). Pa., Minn.). 

Cedar (Conn., Pa., N. J., Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper 

S. C, Ky., 111., la., Ohio). Bush (local). 
Pencil Cedar, Cendre (La.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to 
Mississippi River in the North, and Colorado River in the 
South. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Sometimes low shrubs. Dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer 
bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. Close, even 
grain, compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests, cigar-bo.xes. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

30- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

950,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks. 

Fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. The Western Red 
Cedar (7. scopulorum) and the Southern Red Cedar (7. har- 
badensis) allord similar wood. Live trees {Juniperus vir- 
giniana) are sometimes attacke.l by fungi similar to those 
associated with living cypress and incense cedar trees. The 
disease stops with felling, and pitted boards have been known 
to last for over fifty years. — .\lso see von Schrenk, Contri- 
bution 44, Shaw School of Botany, also Two Diseases of Red 
Cedar, U. S. Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, 
Bui. 21, Mohr, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 31. 



176 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF M^'OOD. 

Juniper. Juniperus occiJenlalis Hook. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Col., ern Cedar (Idaho, Col., 

Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho, Mont.). 

N. M.). Western Red Cedar, Western 
Cedar, Yellow Cedar, West- Juniper (local). 

Locality. 

California, Washington, and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, 
often smaller. Long straight trunk in West. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. Very close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, durable, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Rarelv found below an altitude of 6000 feet. Frait said to be 
eaten by Indians. 



The California Juniper {Juniperus californica) occurs inter- 
mittently in some districts near the California coast. It is often 
small, but is sometimes as much as thirty or forty feet in height and 
one or two feet in diameter. The bark is shaggy and gray. There 
are wide, gnarled branches. It is said that the berries are edible. 
The soft, close-grained, fragrant, durable wood has been applied to 
minor purposes. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF H-'OODS. 177 

White Cedar, Arborvitae. Thuya uccidenUdis Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Siui worth.) 

White Cedar, Arborvita.- (local Atlantic Red Cedar (Cal.). 

and coninn)n name.s). Vita; (Del.). 

Cedar (Me., Vt., N. V.). 

Locality. 

Northern States eastward from Manitoba and Michigan. North- 
ward, also occasionally southward, as in mountain region of 
North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to si.xty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter, 
often smaller. Bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent 
odor, rapidly tapering trunk. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, 
nearly white. Even, rather fine grain, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. Permits spikes 
to work loose. 

Representative Uses of W^ood. 

Railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and 
boats. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

19. 

]\Iodulus of Elasticity. 

750,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 

Trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber. Often used 
for telegraph or other poles, or else thin upper ends are used 
for posts, and lower section flattened into ties. The wood is 
remarkably duralile. Hough mentions a pro-trate cedar tree, 
over the trunk of which, a hemlock, exhibiting one hundre/l 
and thirty yearly rings had taken root. The cedar had been 
in contact with the ground for at least that time. Much of the 
wood of this tree was yet sound and much was eventually cut 
into shingles. 



178 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Canoe Cedar, Arborvitae, Giant Arborvitae. \ ^^"'.'« /^'^"^'^ ^"«- 

( Ihuya gtganlea Ami. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Canoe Cedar, Giant Arborvi toe Cedar, Giant Cedar, Western 

(local and common names). Cedar (Oreg., Cal.). 

Red Cedar, Giant Red Cedar, Shinglewood (Idaho). 

Pacific Red Cedar (Wash., 

Oreg., Cal., Idaho). 

Locality. 

Coast region, California to Alaska, Idaho to Montana. 

Features of Tree. ' 

One hundred to two hundred feet in height, two to eleven 
feet in diameter. Four-sided leaves closely overlapiping in 
sprays. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dull reddish brown, thin sapwood nearly white. 
Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers distinct. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, weak, light, brittle, easily worked, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shingles, fencing, cooperage, interior finish, canoes (coast 
Indians). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

23- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Large trees are often hollow at tne bottom. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- NEEOLELE/tF IVOODS. 179 

White Cedar. ChanuBcyparis thyoides L. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

White Cedar (local and com- Post Cedar,S\vamp Cedar (Del.), 
mon name). Juniper (Ala., N. C, Va ). 

Locality. 

Maine to Florida, (iulf coast to Mississippi, best in Virginia 
and North Carolina. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter. 
Shaggy rugged bark. A graceful tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood i)inkish to darker brown, sapwood lighter. Close- 
grained, compact structure, con.spicuous layers. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very light, soft, not strong, extremely durable in exposed posi- 
tions, fragrant, easil)' worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Boats, railway ties, fencing, poles, posts, shingles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
23 (U. S. Forestry Div. ). 
20. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

910,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.). 
570,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

6310 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.). 
6400. 

Remarks. 

Grows chiefly in swamps. " \Miite cedar posts " last many "years. 
Thvoides is from Thuya meaning arborvitK and cidos, the 
Greek for " resemblance. 



The shallow-water timber swamp is very formidable. The " white 
cedar swamp" of the Lake Superior region, for example, is covered by 
growth with vigorous branches close down by the ground. These meet 
and cross so that passage resembles progress through a cultivated hed^e. 
The roots lie partly out of water and, while apparently sound, are slippery 
and sometimes decayed, so that pedestrians stepping or springing from 
one to another, encumbered by burdens and obstructed by wiry branches, 
are apt to .=lip and fall. The constant use of arms and limbs with shocks 
caused by the shifting of " packs " during falls and the annoying insects, 
require strength and patience. Such northern swamps can best be 
penetrated during winter. The so-called tamarack swamp of the north 
differs in that there is an absence of under branches. The cypress is the 
characteristic swampland tree of the South. 



l8o THE PRINCIPAL SPhCIES OF IVOOD. 

Port Orford Cedar, Lawson Cypress. 

Chamcecyparis Liwsoniana Mitrr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Cedar, Oregon Cedar Ginger Pine (Cal.). 
(Oreg., Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to sometimes two hundred feet in height, four to 
twelve (?) feet in diameter. Leaves overla|jping in sprays, 
very small cones one-fourth inch in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Hcartwood yellowish white, sapwood similar. Very close- 
grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, strong, durable, easily worked, fragrant, resinous. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, interior finish, ties, posts, matches, ship- 
building. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,730,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 2,600. 

Remarks. 

Resin employed as insecticide. 



Yew (Taxui) is a close-grained wood that suggests cedar, but it is 
tough like hickory. It was one of the " fighting woods " of the Greeks. 
The early Celtic races associated the trees with funerals. The t>est yew 
bow-staves come from Italy, Turkey and Spain, and were once distributed 
through the Venetian markets. The Spanish staves were so important 
that they were controlled by the Spanish Government. Later, European 
bows were backed with other and more plentiful woods. Yew is now 
occasionally employed for chairs, canes and whips. 

Pacific Coast Indians prizefi the Western, Oregon or California yew 
{Taxus brevifoiui) for bows, paddles and fish hooks. The Florida yew 
(Taxus flofidana) is another United States species. Ernest Thompson 
Seton classes American woods suitable for bows in order of excellence as 
follows: " Oregon Yew, Osage Orange, White Hickory, Ehn, Cedar, 
Apple, etc." 



t;.XOGHNOUS SHRlHS-NEEDLELEylF IVOODS. I. Si 

Yellow Cedar, Yellow Cypress, / \ J 

Sitka Cypress. j (nL,u-n'paris nulkarns,sSp,Kh. 

Nunicnclaturu. (Sudwurtli. ) 

Nooika Cypress, Nootka Alaska Cypress, Alaska 
Sound Cypress (local). Ground Cypress (local). 

Locality. 

Oregon to Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet or more 
in diameter. Sliarp-j)ointed, overlapping leaves, small glub- 
ular cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood clear light yellow, thin sapwood nearly white. 
Close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, not strong, brittle, hard, durable in contact with soil, 
easily worked, receives high polish, fragrant. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, furniture, interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

2y. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
^lodulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 

Valuable Alaska timber tree. Commercially noi distinguished 
from Pacific Arborvitae. 



l82 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Incense Cedar, White Cedar. Libocedrus Jecurrcus Torr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Post Cedar, California Post California White Cedar 

Cedar (local). (local). 

Bastard Cedar, Red Cedar, Juniper (Nevada). 

Locality. 

California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, occa 
sionally higher, three to si.x feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter. Close-grained, compact 
structure. Heartwood often pitted. Fragrant. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, 'brittle, soft, durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Flumes, shingles, interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

25- 

Moilulus of Elasticity. 



1, 200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

960,000. 

Remarks. 

Subject to attack by fungus, causing the large oval pits in the 
heartwood. Disease ceases upon the felling of trees. The 
wood l;etween the decayed spaces is apparently sound, even in 
living trees, and when seasoned is durable so that it can be used 
for posts or for purposes where appearance is unimportant. 
Some dealers charge as much for defective as for sound wood. 
This disease is similar to the ones associated with cypress and 
red cedar (pages 175 and 184). About half of the standing 
supply is effected. The disease is called "pin rot." Also see 
von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14; Shaw, School Botany, 
St. Louis. 



PLATE 32. CYPRESS (Ct,j>r,ss;,s, 7,ixojitim). 




MouterL-y (,ypreis (Liiprcss: 
{Courlisy Doubleday, l\i 



iiiacrocarpa). 

ir Co.) 

Cypress (Taxociium distickum). 
(Photegra/'h by Mdwnrd J. Daiiison.) 



■ Peggy " Cypress Wood. 



CYPRESS. 

(Cupressus and Taxodium.) 

The name cypress has been chiefly applied to trees of the gen- 
era Cham.x'cyparis, Cupressus, and Taxodiiim. Most species o{ 
the genus Chama;cyparis are now called cedars (see page 173). 
The Cupressus, while true cypresses and important in Europe, 
have no significance in America. The single species of the 
genus Ta.xodium is not a cypress, but supplies the ' ' cypress ' ' 
wood of American commerce. It is perhaps best to confine 
the name cypress to the true cypress [Cupressus) and to the 
commercial cypress [Taxodiuiii). 

The true cypress {Cupressus') was once important in the 
East, and is thought by some to have given the gopher wood 
of which the Ark was built.* Pliny mentions cypress doors 
good after four hundred years, and a statue good after six 
hundred years. Herodotus and other ancient authors f speak 
of it. Authorities in the middle ages thought that it would 
never decay. The cypress gates of the early St. Peter's, 
removed after one thousand years of service, were found to be 
in perfect condition. J Cypress was much prized for mummy- 
cases. Living trees long figured as funeral emblems, and are 
yet planted over graves in Italy and Turkey. § The common 
or evergreen cypress is the chief European species. The eight 
or nine American representatives are of little note save as they 
are sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation. The 
Monterey and Gowan cypresses {Cupressus macrocarpa and 
Cupressus goveniana) are thus employed. There are small 
evergreen scale-like leaves. 

The Monterey cypress {Cupressus macrocarpa) is noted 
throughout the entire California region because of a clump of 
trees, frequently visited, that include the only original specimens 

* Funk & WAgnalls' Standard Dictionary, quotinc; Horace Smith, "Gayeties 
and Gravities." Chapter VII, p. 57. 

f Pliny 16, 214 and 16, 215; Herodotus 4, 16; Virgil, Georgics, 2, 443. 

J Encyclopaedia Britannica, B. 6, p. 745. 

§ Brockhaus, Koti.versations-Lexikon. B 4, p. 654. 

183 



1 84 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

surviving in the United States. The famous "Seventeen-Mile 
Drive" near Monterey, California, passes through the district 
in which this group is located. The weird forms, ^\ith gnarled 
wind-beaten branches, are \'ery unusual. Some of the individ- 
ual trees are distinguished by names. The species grows readily 
in many areas from Washington to Mexico; a fact not easily 
reconciled with the few individuals in the one original group. 
The transplanted monterey cypress is locally popular in hedges 
and other landscape effects. 

The American or Bald Cypress ( Taxodiuni distichiiiii) is a 

tree of considerable importance. It grows in the South 

Atlantic and Gulf States, on submerged lands or in deep 

swamps where unusual logging methods are necessitated. The 

seasoned wood resembles white cedar in that it is soft, light, 

and ver)' durable. It has been called by many names. Pieces 

A .a, were once called black or white cypress 

^^ ^^^ according as they sank or floated. All 

.*"" - ^-7 dark pieces are now called black cypress. 

The tinted woods of some localities are 



%/ 




^.vV::? called red or j'ellow c}'press. The name 
1."— bald c\'press was caused by the leafless 
appearance of the trees in winter. The 
li\ing trees are subject to a peculiar fung- 
ous disease, causing numerous cavities 
in the wood. These so resemble per- 
forations made by small pegs that the 

wood is termed " peggy. " The trouble 
Bald Cypress (7;«W»»« ^^^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^j 

distuntmi). 

is then as durable as that from perfect 
trees. About one third of the standing supply is thus 
affected.* The roots frequently project upward above the 
surface in what are known as c}'press knees. The single 
species of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous 
foliage ; the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as 
with the tamaracks. 

* U. S. Forestry Circular No. ig (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 185 

Cypress, Bald Cypress. Taxndium dislichum Rich. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Cypress (N. C, S. C, Swamp Cypress (La.). 

Fla., Miss.). Deciduous Cypres.s (Del , III., 

Black Cypress (N. C, S. C, Te.\ ). 

Ala., Tex.). Southern Cypress (Ala.). 

Red Cypress (Ga., Miss., La., 

Te.x.). 

Locality. 

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Maryland through Florida to 
Texas, Mississippi Valley from southern Illinois to the (iulf. 
Occasional in North, as New York. Forms forests in swamps 
and barrens.* 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to ten 
feet in diameter. Knees on roots often hollow in old age. 
Flat deciduous leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight 
grain. Frequently pitted by disease. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Green wood often very heavy. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, cooperage, railway ties. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
29 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).f 
28. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,290,000 (average of 655 tests by L^. S. Forestry Div.).f 
1,460,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7900 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div. ).f 
9600. 

Remarks. 

Wood commercially divided into " white " and " black " cypress 
because of differences in age and environment. Fungus dis- 
ease pits much wood, but stops with felling of trees. J 

* See Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol. XXIX, p.age 157. 
+ See page 8. 

J Von Sclirenk, Contribution Nu. 14, Shaw School Botany, St. Louis; also U. .S. 
Forestry Circular No. 19. 



REDWOOD. 

(Sequoia.) 

These trees grow only in California. There are two 
species: the common redwood (S. scmpervirens), noted for its 
lumber, and the big or mammoth tree (S. wasliingtoniana), so 
remarkable for its great size. Geological evidence indicates 
that the genus was once represented by many species on both 
hemispheres, but that all disappeared during the glacial period 
save the two here noted. 

The common redwood is a large and perfect tree and 
supplies a wood suggesting good red cedar. This soft, light, 
clean, reddish-brown, durable wood works and stands well, is 
not easily inflamed, and is obtainable in large-sized pieces for 
use in large corrstructions. Coffins and shingles are made of 
it, also large quantities of wooden water-pipe employed for 
irrigation purposes. The average wood is seen in cheaper 
forms of indoor finish, while occasional pieces, in which the 
grain is distorted, are classed as curly redwood and used for 
costlier decorations. See plate 33. Redwood resists fire to a 
remarkable degree, as was evidenced in the original City of San 
Francisco, where, in the absence of other materials, it was largely 
employed for building. Redwood is so durable that fallen 
trunks that have lain hundreds of years in the forests have been 
sawn and used as lumber. Redwood resists many forms of 
insect life. Redwood pipe employed in irrigation work is not 
usually attacked by "ants" or other insects while wet and in 
use. Staves have sometimes been injured while lying piled upon 
the ground, but such instances are probably exceptional and 
the injury not great. Redwood does not resist attacks by marine 
life. The wood of Sequoia washingtonia is seldom commercially 
distinguished from that of Sequoia sempervirens. The unusual 
size of redwood trees cause logging operations to be difficult and 
costly. (See page 162.) 



PLATE 33. REDWOOD {Se<iuoia). 




Gi.uit Kcd» 1 1. 



L'ltrUsy DoudUday, Page ^ Cc.) 

"Curly" ReJwouJ Wood (disseition). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF iVOODS- 187 

Big or Mammoth trees have been measured up to three hundred and 
twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in diameter (Sargent). They are 
thus the largest of American trees and the most massive, although not the 
tallest, of all trees Specimens twenty-five feet in diameter have been 
estimated as thirty-six hundred years old, and it is thought that under 
favorable conditions trees can survive for five thousand years, or even 
longer. The oldest trees are sound throughout. The almost incombustible 
bark is nearly two feet in thickness; the wood is brittle, but otherwise 
resembles ordinary redwood. It should be noted that large exceptional 
trees are all known, and that most of them have names such as the " Pride 
of the Forest," the "Grizzly Giant," and the "U. S, Grant." These, with 
younger trees, are grouped in the Mariposa, Calavaras, and other groves. 
Many sawmills are unfortunately engaged on the trees of this .species, the 
notably large specimens of which do not exceed several hundred. 

The history of a Redwood tree, dating from two hundred and seventy- 
one years before the Christian era, was reported by Prof. Du<lley to the 
United States Senate, through the late Honorable O. H. Piatt of Con- 
necticut, on February 11, igo4. The record, obtained bj- counting the 
concentric layers of growth on the cross-section of the felled tree, showed 
that forest fires had occurred during the years 245, 1441, 1580, and 1797 
A.D. The last fire was locally severe, since it charred a space thirty feet 
high and eighteen feet broad. Recovery from such wound is evidence as 
to the vitality of the species, and it is interesting to note that the new 
tissue was full, even, and continuous, as deposited above the wound. 

The vitality of the redwood is remarkable. Its ability to reproduce by 
sprouts from the parent stump is almost phenomenal. The redwood tree 
resists forest fires as well as any other known species,* and repairs wounds 
that would destroy many other trees. The thick roots project downward 
so sharply as to suggest inverted funnels, and are so vigorous that trees are 
seldom uprooted by the winds. Growth is rapid, trees having been 
known to develop heights of eighty feet and diameters of sixteen inches 
within thirty years. The genus is thus unusually important, first, because 
of the present value of the wood, and, second, because the quick-growing 
healthy trees are likely to resist commercial extinction. 

Redwood trees may be known by their size, locality, and 
fine, dull, evergreen foliage. The name Sequoia is that of an 
Indian chief. The two species must be distinguished. Common 
redwoods are nearer the coast; they "follow the fogs." Some 
of ihe trees are so great as to be co: fused with other "giant" 
rcdvvocds (5. Washinglonia). 

* This is because the thick bark resists fire, and also, to some extent, because 
trees (Sequoia sempervirens) thrive in moist places 

Reference: "The Big Trees of California," U. S. Forestry Division, Bulletin 
No. 28. Also Mr. Jas. Horsburgh, Jr., Southern Pacific Railway. 



i88 EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS 

Redwood. Sequoia semperviiens Endl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli. ) 

Redwood (local and common .Sequoia, California Redwood, 

name). Coast Redwood (local). 

Local iiv. 

Central and North Pacific coust region. 

Features of Tree. 

Two hundred to three hundred feet in height, sometimes higher, 
si.x to eight and sometimes twent}' feet in diameter. Straight, 
symmetrical trunk. Low branches rare. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood red, changing to reddish brown when seasoned ; 
Thin sapwood nearly white. Coarse, straight grain, compact 
structure, very thick bark. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, not strong, soft, very durable, not resinous, easily 
worked. Does not burn ea.sily, receives polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Timber, shingles, flumes, fence-posts, coffms, railway ties, 
water-pipes, interior decoration. Bark made into souvenirs. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
26 (census figure, see page 8). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

790,000 (average of 8 Humboldt specimens). f 
1,140,000 (average of 7 Humboldt specimens). f 
960,000 (census figure, see page 8) 

Modulus of Rupture. 

4920 (average of 9 Humboldt specimens). f 
7138 (average of 7 Mendocino specimens)."}" 
8400 (census figure, see page 8). 

Remarks. 

Pacific coast chief construction wood. Curled or distorted grain 
adds value for cabinet purposes. 



The Big or Mammoth Tree or Giant Redwood {S. 7vas/n>iff- 
toniana Sudworth and .S. giganlea) is the largest tree known. The 
wood resembling that of .S. sempervirens is used locally, see U. S. 
Forestry Bui. No. 28. 

•f Professor Frank Soulc, Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., California Meeting. 1899. 
There are several trees of this species near New York City. 



PLATE 34. ENDOGKNUUS STKUCTUKl-: IN \Vi-i(_1D. 






-.-'-••''•fl 









rAHii'. 



A M-ai.ii, il,r..ii-li ,, r.cliu irce. 




A cross-section of Palii 



id. (Xatund size.) 



ENDOGENOUS TREES. 

i^MoiuHotylcdons.) 

Endogenous trees are those that increase from within. 
Their elemental parts are similar to those of exogenous trees 
but the arrangement of such parts differs in that the newer 
fibres of the Endogen intermingle with the old, pass through 
a pith-like tissue, and cause cross-surfaces to appear as dotted, 
w hcreas the new material of the Exogen is deposited altogether 
and upon the outside of the old, their sections exhibiting rings 
or layers. The Palms, Yuccas, Cornstalks, and Bamboos are 
of the endogens. Bark is unusual on trees of the series. 

luidogenous woods are hardest and most compact at cir- 
cumferences. The stems of palm trees are solid, but those of 
some of the grasses, particularl}- those tliat grow quickly, are 
hollow. ■•■■ The tube or canal, when existing, is due to sluggish- 
ness on the part of the central pith, which, developing more 
slowly than the outer tissues, finally ruptures and disappears 
at the center. There are also more or less permanent joints 
or knots, t such as are made familiar by the canes and bam- 
boos. The stems of Endogenous plants are seldom cut up 
into lumber, but are used in segments, or else entire, as for 
troughs or piles. J The use of Palm wood must be more or less 

* The Bamboo, which is a grass, is hollow, while the cornstalk, which is also 
a t;rass. is not. 

t The knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of exogens. Spaces between 
the nodes, known as internodes, mark the annual lengthening. Knots are places 
•whence leaves have emerged. 

% See "Marine Wood Borers,'' Trans. Am. ?oc. C. I'.., \'ol. XL, pages 195 
:ind 204. 



I90 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

limited to the neighborhoods in wliich such trees flourish, but 
it is probable that the Bamboo can be much more generally 
employed. Palmwood shrinks generally in drying, principally 
in the pith-like tissue that surrounds the fibres. These fibres 
are then closer together than in fi-esh wood. Palm apparently 
repels the teredo in many positions. Teredoes are not " worms " 
but true mollusks. They line their tunnels with calcareous de- 
posits, along the smooth surfaces of which they can glide, ex- 
panding or contracting at will. This lining, which is distinct 
from the boring shell, is preferably, if not always, deposited 
upon solid wood, cracks and other imperfections being normally 
avoided. Boards nailed over woodwork afford perfection dur- 
ing their own existence, because the teredo will not willingly 
cross the lines of separation. Some think that this explains 
why Palm wood often remains uninjured in localities where the 
hardest of hard woods easily fail. Palm trees are cultivated at 
Southern coast resorts, where they add greatly to the beauty 
and novelty of the landscape. The Washington or Fanleaf 
Palm is popular in Southern California. The Royal Palm 
{Oreodoxa regia) is native in Florida, but is best developed in 
Central America and the West Indies; its wood is hard and 
heavy, with large, dark, fibre-bundles, contrasting sharply with 
their surrounding tissue, as shown in the lower picture of plate 

34- 

The Endogens include numerous families and many thou- 
sand species.* The grasses, including wheat, rye, and Indian 
corn at the North and sugar-cane and bamboo at the South, 
belong to this group. Most Endogens are herbs ; compara- 
tively few fijrnish material for structural purposes. The Palms, 
including the palmetto, rattans, cane palms, and others, the 
Yucca, including the Joshua tree, Spanish bayonet, and others, 
and the Bamboos, representatives of the grasses, are thus use- 
ful. Endogens are also known as Monocotyledons. 

* Bastin ("College Botany," p. 370) divides into about fifty natural orders dis- 
tributed among seven divisions. Warming ("Systematic Botany," pp. 277, 278J 
divides into seven families corresponding with Bastin's seven divisions. A. Gray 
divides into twenty-one order? or families. Coulter ("Plants," p. 237) dividei 
into forty families, including twenty thousand species. 



n.Ari'", 35, I'ALM tr,i/m,icc-u} 




<(<A,^di:iR!:.'j<^^; 



fib.ii^'e Palmetto Washington faim ^unlrlIUIucu). VvasliingtoM i aim 



Washington Palm ^untnmmeJ). 



This is one of the lartjcst and most important orders of 
plants known to man . I'he one thousand * or more known 
species are distributed over the tropical and semitropical 
regions of the entire world. Only a few species, including tiie 
palmettos of the Gulf States and the fan palms of Calfornia, 
are native in the United States. 

Palms have tall, columnar trunks without branches, but 
with crowns of large leaves at their summits. Their forms 
and proportions are often magnificent. The wood is soft, 
light, more or less porous, difficult to work, and not strong. 
The shapes of trunks sometimes cause them to be local iy 
prized for piles, while the porous qualities of the wood are 
such as to repel teredo t There are many by-products, as 
fruit, nuts, oil, etc. The rattan or cane palms of India and 
the Malayan Islands sometimes grow to a height of two 
hundred feet and are imported into Europe and America for 
chair-bottoms and the like. Thus far, the palm is almost ex- 
clusively valued in the United States for landscape effects. 
Most palms seen at pleasure resorts are not native. The\' have 
been transplanted. 

SudworthJ enumerates the following as attaining to the 
dignity of trees in the United States: 

Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal palmetio). Siirgent P.ilm iPsnulophamx snr;;eiitii). 

Silvertop Palmetto ( Thriiui.x >iii(rocarp,i\. F.mleaf Palm { Washinglonia filifera). 

Silktop Palmetto {'flirinax parri flora). Royal Palm {Oreodoxa regia). 
Mexican Palmetto (Saba/ mexuana). 

* Coulter, '"Plants," p. 241. 

t " Marine Wood Borers," Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pp 195 and 204. 

X " Check List," U. S. Forestry Bui. Xo. i 7. 

A. L. Wallace, "Palm Trees of .\mazon and their Uses," London, 1S53. 

igi 



192 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF I4^00D. 

Cabbage Palmetto. Sahal palmeiio Walt. 
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cabbage Palmetto, Palmetto Cabbage Tree (Miss., Fla.). 

(N. C, S. C). Tree Palmetto (La.). 

Locality. 
Southern Atlantic and Gulf coast, United States (intermittently). 
Rare at northern limit. Best on Florida southwest coast. 
Features of Tree. 

Medium size, thirty to forty feet in height, one to two and one- 
half feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light-brown tint. Characteristic coarse fibre arrangement, ./^s 
a whole, wood is soft and light, but fibro-vascular bundles 
are hard to work. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, difficult to work; durable in marine work ; repels 
teredo. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Piles, wharf-work, etc. Used locally for small marine w<jrks. 
Weight of Seasoned ^^^)od in Pounds jier Cubic Foot. 

27. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 
Modulus of Rupture. 
Remarks. 

Scrubbing-brush "bristles" are made in considerable quantities 
in Florida from the sheath of young leaves. The inner part 
of young plant is edible. 

The following Palmettoes also grow in the United States. (Sudworth) 
Silktop Palmetto, Silver Thatch {Thrinax parviflora). Silvertop Palmetto, 
Prickly Thatch, Brittle Thatch {Thrinax microcarpa), Mexican Palmetto (Sabal 
mexicana). The first two grow in Florida and the Bahamas. The last in South- 
western Texas and old Mexico. 

Date Palm {Phcenix dactylifera). Conditions seldom favor the development 
of commercial dates save in ,\rizona, where the industry is likely to prove a per- 
manent one. Other spe ies of Phcenix, cultivated for decorative purposes and 
known as date palms, are distinct. "Phcenix" refers to Phoenicia. "Dactylus" 
and "dates" are derived from the Hebrew "dachel." * The date plam affords 
fruit, syrup and vinegar. The wood is used to make beds, tables, chairs, cradles 
and boats. "The leaves are formed into fans, baskets, cord, and paper. The 
light, porous, but durable, trunk is used in carpentry. The fibres on the trunk 
are made into rope." "Arabia," S. M. Zweimar. 

* Swingle (Year Book, Dept. Agriculture, 1900, pp. 453, 490), Toumey (Ariz. 
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 29). 



ENDOGENOUS SERIES. 193 

Washington Palm. j Washinglmtia fiU/era Wendl. 
Fanleaf Palm. ( Kemvashinglonia filamenlosa Wendl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Fanleaf Palm, Washington California Fan Palm, Arizona 
Palm, Desert Palm (Cal.). Palm, Wild Date (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to sixty feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in 
diameter. Fan-shaped leaves rising yet farther in tuft from 
summit; edible fruit. 

Color, .\ppearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light greenish yellow to dark red, conspicuous grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, shrinks in seasoning, diflicult to work. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Ornamental purposes. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. ^ 

Remarks. 
The largest of the United States Palms. Much used for land- 
scape ellects in California. 

These trees, native in the deserts, are probably the most popular of 
the palms transplanted in the cultivated districts of Southern California. 
■■ Desert" refers to the original ranges of the ■.r,;es. "Fanleaf" refers to 
the large fan-like leaves, while "filifera" and ■■filimentosa" aUude to the 
filaments hanging from the leaves. 

The trunks are of no more importance than those of other local palms, 
but the leaf-stalks e.x.hibit strength and characteristics as follows: — Fresh 
stalks are light, tough, stringy and flexible. They are of a gray green 
color and resemble bamboo in that they harden and turn yellow asthey 
dry. They differ from bamboo in the form of their cross sections and in 
that rods 10 feet or more in length have no joints. Many thousand of 
these leaf stalks are annually pruned from growing trees in Southern 
California and are at present burned as waste. 

Two roughly cured stalks were tested, the central portions of each spe- 
cimen broke, leaving edges which stripped without sign of fracture. One 
piece resisted tension up to 11,370 pounds per square inch, while the other 
broke at 10,150 pounds per square inch. These figures, that must be con- 
sidered with the light weight of the wood, were averaged for entire sec- 
tions including those parts that stripped without breaking. Strength 
would doubtless be increased by selection and seasoning. 

The "wild date" must not be confused with the true date Palm 
{Phoenur dactylifera) as naturalized in Florida, Arizona, and California. (See 
page 194.) 



(Yucai.) 

The eighteen species constituting this genus are all Ameri- 
can. Twelve of them are found in the southern and western 
United States, and eight of these are mentioned by Sudworth * 
as arborescent. Several of the Yuccas are cultivated because 
of their beautiful lily-like flowers. The Tree Yucca or Joshua- 
tree affords wood. 

This last named species produces a short stout trunk, 
peculiar in that it is covered by thick bark. The soft, spongy 
wood is sometimes sawn into lumber, made into souvenirs and 
lately into artificial limbs. An attempt to manufacture it into 
paper-pulp t is said to have failed because of high cost made 
necessary by the remote position of the industry. Hough 
notes X that trees are sometimes attacked by borers that im- 
pregnate the walls of their tunnels with hardening antiseptic 
solutions, causing such parts to remain after the disappearance 
of the others. And that these parts are described as " petrified 
wood, ' ' and are prized for fuel since they burn with ' ' little 
smoke and great heat." Yucca wood fibres interlace much as 
in cloth. The wood has practically no cleavage. This is well 
shown in pieces that have been steamed and then stretched. 
Sheets of yucca wood peeled from around the billet (see 
footnote, page 13) are as roughly pliable as felt of t\\ice the 
thickness. 

The eight species noted by Sudworth are as follows: 

Yucca arboresceiis (Jo-iliui tree). 'S'liccii a]oifoIia fAIoe-leaf Viiccat. 

Yucca treculeana (Spanish Bayonet). Yucca macrocarpa (Breadfruit Yucca). 

Yucca gloriosa (Spanish Digger. Yucca brevifolia (Schott Yucca). 

Yucca mohavensis (Mohave Yucca). Yucca constricta. 

* "Check List." U. S. Forestry Bui. No 17. 

■|" South of Mohave P-'sert in California about twenty years ago. 

J American Woods, Part VII, p. 57. 

194 



PLA ri-; 36. VUCCA ( Vina, arborc-$c,-ns\ 




Wood Ut \ ULL.l. 



ENDOGENOUS SERIES. '95 

, , ^ ,, I I'uccu arborescens Terr. 

Joshua-tree, Yucca. - ,- , v / *• / 

Nomenclature. (Sudwortli.) 

Josluia-tree, The Josliua, Yucca Cactus (Cal.). 

Yucca, Yucca Tree (Utah, 
Ariz., N. I\l., Cal.). 

Local it)-. 

Central and lower Rocky ^loiintain region. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-live to forty feet in height, six inches to two feet in 
diameter. 
Thick outer cover or bark.* 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light brown to white, porous grain, interlaced fibre structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, spongy, flexible in thin sheets, such aa are devel- 
oped by the rotary cut. 

Representative Uses of Wootl. 

Paper-pulp, souvenirs, boxes, book covers, and otlier small 
articles, artificial limbs. 

Wciglit of Seasoned \\'(jod in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



23- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Bark is unusual in the case of endogeneous trees. Arborescens 
refers to fact that (/ is a tree. Artificial arms and legs are 
made by bending veneers of yucca wood over moulds of the 
stumps of amputated members. Shells are made up by thv 
aid of strong cements, and the "limbs''' that result are 
strong, tough, and very light. The processes are protected 
by patents which include the methods by which the wood is 
artificially toughened, f 

* See paragraph Bark, Endogenous Trees, page iSg. 
t Yucca Limb Co., Los .\ngeles, California. 



{BaiiibiiSiV.) 

The bamboos are giant members of a group (grasses *), the 
other individuals of which, while widely distributed, valued, 
and \cr_\- numerous, are for tlie most part insignificant as to 
bulk-, height, and structural characteristics. The canes and 
bamboos are exceptions in that they form what ma)- well be 
called forests, and produce woods used in construction. The 
Bamboos, included in about twenty genera and two hundred 
species, f are distributed unevenly over the tropical zone. 
Some are hardy when transplanted in California and the 
Carol inas. 

Some bamboo plants with numerous stalks and delicate 
foliage resemble plumes of giant ostrich feathers. Stems often 
attain heights of seventy feet and diameters of four and six 
inches (see Fig. 3 plate). Knots or joints are at first close 
together, but are later one or two feet apart. Growth is sur- 
prisingly rapid. A Philippine specimen, which when meas- 
ured was eighteen inches high and four inches in diameter, 
grew two feet in three daj'S.J Florida stalks have reached 
heights of seventy-two feet in a single season. § The plants 
are apt to take complete possession of the ground on which 
thc_\- grow. Those who use bamboo value it highlj-. It is 
employed entire or else split into segments. Some can be 



* Grasses, "one of the largest and probably one of the most useful groups of 
plants. ... If grass-like sedges be associated, . . . there are about 6000 species, 
representing nearly one third of the Monocotyledons." (Coulter, "Plants," pp. 240- 
241.) The various pasture-grasses, cereals, and sugar-canes are here included. 
Bamboos and canes are distinct in that they afford structural materials. 

•f B. E. Fernow notes (p. 20, Forestry Bulletin No. 11'): "In addition to the genus 
bambusa, the genera Arundinaria, Arundo, Dendrocalamus, and Guadua are the 
most important." All of tribe Bambusae. 

t Frederic H. Sawyer, Memb. Inst. C. E., "Inhabitants of the Philippines," 
Chas. Scribner's Sons, iqoo (p. 5). 

§ Page 29, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. II. 

196 



PLATE 37. BAMBOO (Bam6iis<e). 




Biuiiboo tJruvc, ('liilippines. 

Hy ll,e laurlay <•/ llie M,tKi:a P. i. Forestry Bur 




Bamboo Grove, China. 
Bamboo sections, 5J inches diameter. 



ENnOGi;NOUS SHRIHS. 197 

opened and flattened into rough boards, splitting everywhere 
but liolding together.* For vessels it is cut off with reference 
to the partitions. The subject is tlius summarized by Dr. 
Martin :t "The Chinese make masts of it for their small 
junks, antl twist it into cables for their larger ones. They 
weave it into matting for floors, and make it into rafters for 
roofs. Tiiey sit at table on bamboo chairs, eat shoots of 
bamboo with bamboo chop-sticks. The musician blows a 
bamboo Ihitc, and the watchman beats a bamboo rattle. 
Criminals arc confined in a bamboo cage and beaten with 
bamboo rods. Paper is made of bamboo fibre, and pencils of 
a joint of bamboo in which is inserted a tuft of goat's hair." 

Bamboos have hard silicious exteriors, rendering them 
nearly impervious to water. Their development may be 
rightly compared to that of asparagus, in that both are at first 
brittle and tender. Stems grown in a few weeks require three 
or four years to harden. The fresh uncured stems can be 
curved or bent to many uses. In Japan, bamboo is said 
to have devcloi)etl into one of the most profitable of crops. 
(Fairchild, U. S. Dept. Agri., Bureau Plant Industr\-, Bulletin 
No. 43.) 

The manipulation of this valuable material is not yet 
understood m America. Prof. Johnson notes | that the wood 
of "bamboo is just twice as strong as the strongest wood in 
cross-bending, weight for weight, when the wood is taken in 
specimens, with a square and solid cross-section." Dr. Fernow 
considers the bamboo worthy of more extensive trial through- 
out the Gulf region. 

* Prof. Isaac F. Holton. '■ New Granada," Harper Bros., New York, 1857 (p. 
109). 

t "Cycle of Cathay," FleraiiigH. Revcll Co.. 18.19 (p. 172). 

I Materials of Construction, 1897. p. O89. 

Henry G. Hubbard, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11. A. B. Mitford, "The 
Bamboo Garden," Macmillan, 1896. Kurz, "Bamboo and its Uses," Calcutt.i,, 
1876. 

" Bamboo as Substitute for Wood, " Fernow. p. 203, 6th Annual Report. 

" Japanese Bamboos," Fairchild, U. S. iJept. .Agriculture. Bureau Plant In- 
dustry, Bulletins 4-' and 43. 



198 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD 

Bamboo. Bumbusa vulgaris. 

Nomenclature. 

Jiainboo (local and common name). 

Localitv. 

Florida (acclimatedj. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five feet in height, four to si.x inches in diameter. 
Delicate branches and leaves. Greenish glazed jointed stem, 
e.xtcnsive roots. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of \\'ood. 

Yellowish brown, conspicuously librous, moderately thin walls, 
central canal broken by joints. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, elastic, works easily. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, poles, utensils, troughs, pipes, roofing, paper. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
Variable. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,380,000 (Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 689). 
Modulus of Rupture. 

27,400 (Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 689), 

Remarks. 

It must be remembered that bamboos while large as trees are not 
trees, but wood-]iroducing grasses. The woods have been used 
in balloon frames and were formerly employed in incandescent 
electric lamps. A stem attains full height in a single year, 
but must then stand for three or four \ears in order to season 
or harden. 



■Rattan is obtained from several sources. Species of Calamus, as C. 
rudentum, are pre-eminently climbers. Stalks not over an inch thick are 
sometimes three hundred or more feet in length, ascending and falling in 
festoons from tall trees. Species of Rhapis, as R. flabellifoiTnis, are, on 
the contrary, erect canes growing in thick tufts. The former are kn.own 
as climbing and the latter as ground rattans. Both are characterized by 
toughness, length, lightness and pliability. Natives make houses, bridges, 
matting, hats, and baskets o-f it. They also make many kinds of cordage, 
from fine sewing fibres to thick cables. Rattan, which is usually split, 
is superceding willow, in most civilized countries, for furniture, fancy 
carriage bodies, chair bottoms and the like. The best rattan comes from 
Borneo. 



INDEX. 



A 

PACE 

Ahirs 155, 162 

biihamca 87, 163, 163 

cnncolor 142, 16?, 165 

gninilis 162, 164 

iniigni/ica 166 

}:iihilis 167 

lii.xi folia 160 

Acacia 83 

False 83 

Three-lhorned 84 

Acer 46 

Jasycarpum 49 

vnicrophylhtm 51 

urgunili) 47. 52 

pscudnplalnmis 46, 71 

ruhrum 50 

siicchminum 48. 49 

saccharum 46, 48 

/F.icultis ' 102 

cnlijornica 104 

fliiva 104 

glabra 103 

hippocastaniivi 102, 103 

octandra 104 

Ailanthus 89 

Ailanthus glandulosa 89 

Alburnum 11 

Algaroba 85 

Alligator-wood 106 

Almug 1^3 

Amyris balsamijera 122 

Apple 34, 40 

Apple-tree (Osage) 119 

Arborvitoe 173, 174, 177, 178 

Giant 174, 1 78 

Pacific 181 

A rbutus 114 

meriziesii 114,116 

xalapcnsis 116 

A rclostaphylos : 1 6 

glauca 116 

piingrns 116 

tomcntosa 116 



PAOB 

A rundinaria 196 

Arundo 196 

Ash 33. 34, 3S. 36, 39. 40 

American 35 

Black 33, 36, 38, 52 

Blue 37, 39 

Brown 36, 38 

Cane 35 

Green 33, 39 

Ash, Hoop 38 

(mineral in wood) 2 

Mountain 40 

Oregon 40 

Pricklv 40 

Red. ! • 36 

River 36 

Second-growth ^^ 

Swamp 38, 39 

Stinking 52 

Sugar 52 

Water 38, 39, 52 

^'■'j.'te 33. 35. 38. 39 

\ ellow 40 

Aspen 87 

Large American 89 

Quaking 89 



B 



Balluck 134 

Balm gi 

Baim of Gilead gi, 163 

Fir 1 63 

Balsam 87, 91, 158, 163, 165 

Canada 163 

He 156 

Poplar 87, 91 

White 165 

Balsam Fir ; 142 

Balsam Tree 165 

Bamboo 189, 196, 197, 198 

Bambusie ig6 

vulgaris 198 

199 



PAGE 

Bass 87 

Basswood 86, 87, 93 

White 93 

Yellow 93 

Bast 5. 9,^ 

Bastard-cut 14 

Bay Rose 114 

Bay Tree 115 

California 115 

Bayonet, Spanish 194 

Baywood 126 

Bead Tree 116 

Bean Tree 98 

Beech 66, 68 

Blue 66, 69 

Red 68 

Ridge 68 

Water 69, 72 

White 68 

Beetle, Spruce destroying 155 

Bee-tree 87, 93 

Betula 74 

lenia 75, 80, 117 

lulea 75 , 79 

nigra 78 

papyrifera 74, 77 

populijolia 75, 76 

Big-bud 60 

Big Tree 167, 186, 188 

California 186, 188 

Birch 74, 78 

Bark 74, 75 

Black 78, 80 

Blue 78 

Canoe 77 

Cherry 80, 117 

European 75 

Gray "](>, 79 

Large White 77 

Mahogany 80 

Oil ' 75 

Oldfield 76 

Paper 74, 77 

Poplar-leaved 76 

Poverty 76 

Red 74, 78 

River 78, 80 

Silver 77, 79 

Small White 76 

Swamp 79 

Sweet . . 75, 80, 1 1 7 

Water 78 

W'hite 74, 76, 77 

Yellow 75> 79 

Bitternut 59 

Black Lind 92 

Blackwood 122 

Biisted 106 

Bloodwood 122 



PAGB 

Blowdown 155 

Bluing 14 

Boards 14 

Boc 66 

Bodark 119, 180 

Bodock iig 

Bois Puant 72, 97 

Bois D'Arc 117, 119 

Bok 66 

Boleau 77 

Bot 14 

Botanical Name 3 

Bow-wood 119 

Box 129 

Bo.xelder 47, 52 

Boxwood 109, 112, 114 

New England 112 

Box, False (Dogwood) 112 

Brashwood 14 

Brittle Thatch 192 

BROADLEAF TREES 15, 16 

WOODS 15, 16 

Buche 66 

Buckeye 102, 103, 104 

Big 104 

California 104 

Fetid 103 

Large 104 

Ohio 103 

Stinking 103 

Sweet 104 

Yellow 104 

BuUnut 60 

Bumelia 67 

tenax 67 

lycioides 67 

Burl S3, 75 

Butternut 53. 5^ 

Buttonball 71, 72, 73 

Buttonball-tree 7-'. 73 

Buttonwood 72, 73 

Buxus 109 

sempervirens 109 

Byra ebenus 118 



Cabbage Tree 192 

Calamus 198 

rudentum 198 

Calico Bush 114 

California Spec ies 114 

Cambium 4 

Camphor Gum 99 

Camphor Tree 99 

Camphor Wood 99 

Cane Palm 198 

Canker 14 



Canoewood 88 

Carbon 2 

Carpinus 66 

caroliniana 66, 69 

Carya 57 

alba 58 

olivtfjormis 61 

porcina 59 

tomentosa 60 

Cassia Bark 98, 99 

Castanea 62, 102 

dentala 64 

pumila 63, 65 

vesca 64 

vescti var. americana 64 

vulgaris var. americana 63, 64 

Castanopsis chrysophylla . . . .62, 63, 65 

Caslilla 113, 114 

alba 113, 114 

Catalpa 96, 97, 98 

Hardy 96, 97 

Western 97 

Catalpa 96 

higtwnioidcs 98 

catalpa 98 

spcciosa 96, 97 

Catawba 98 

Catawba 'I'ree 98 

Cajeput 115 

Cedar 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183 

Atlantic Red 177 

Bastard 

California Post 

California A\'hite 

Canoe 1 74 

Cuban 

Giant 162, 178 

Giant Red 178 

Incense 174, 182 

India 174 

Lebanon 173 

Mexican 

Oreeon 

Pacific Red 

Pencil 1 75 

Port Orford 1 74, ' 

Post 179, 

Red 173, 174, 175, 178, 

Southern 175 

Spanish 125, 128, 173 

Swamp 1 79 

Western 176, 178 

Western Red 175, 176 

White... 1 73, 174, 177, 179, if 

Yellow 174, 176, 181 

Cedrela 

australis 

odorata 125 

odorala-blanco 128 



PAQB 

Cedrela toona 128 

Cedrus 1 73. 1 74 

libani 1 73 

Cell Structures 6 

Cellulose i 

Celtis occidentalis 67 

Census U. S. E.\periments 8 

Cercocarpus breviflorus 124 

ledifolius 124 

parvijolius 124 

Chaynwcyparis 173, 174, 183 

lawsoniana 1 74, i So 

nootkatcnsis 1 74, 181 

nutkiensis 1 74, 181 

thyoides 1 74, 1 79 

Checks 14 

Chene 6io\\6 22 

Chine Vert 29 

Cherry 74, 1 1 7, 120 

Black 120 

Choke 1 20 

Rum 1 20 

Whisky 1 20 

Wild 1 1 7, 1 20 

Wild Black 117, 120 

Cherry Birch 80 

Chestnut 62, 63, 64 

Evergreen 63 

Horse 102, 103 

China 116 

China-berry 116 

Chinquapin 62, 63, 65 

California 62 

Golden 62 

Western 62 

Chlorophyll 5 

Chloroxylon swietenia 125 

Cigar-tree 97. 98 

Indian 98 

Cinnamomum camphor a 99 

cassia 99 

zeylanicum 99 

Cinnamon Tree 99 

Citrus 34 

aiirantium 34 

trijoliala 34 

Cladrastis tlnctoria 40 

Clijlonia monophylla 67 

Coefficients 8, 9. 10 

Coffee 67 

Coffeebean 67 

Coffeenut 67 

Coffeebean-tree 67 

Conifers ij, 13:; 

Coniferous Trees 135 

Coniferous Woods 135 

Confederate Pintree 84 

Consumption (of Wood) 2 

Convolvulus scoparius 122 



Copal 

Cornel • . . 

Flowering 

Cornus 

■florida 

Cotton Tree oo 

Cottonwood 86, 87, 90, Qi 

Balm 91 

Balsam gi 

Big 90 

Black , QI 

Broadleaved go 

Yellow go 

Crab Apple 34, 40- 

American 34 

Narrowleaf 34 

Oregon 34 

Sweet 34 

Cross-section 13 

Cucumber 92 

Cucumber-tree. . 86, 87, 88, 92 

Cuprcssiis 1 83 

gin'cniana 183 

macrocarpa 183 

Cupshake 14 

Cypress I73. i74. 183. 185 

Alaska 181 

Alaska Ground 181 

American 184, i8s 

Bald.. 184, 18^ 

Black 184, 185 

Deciduous 1 85 

Gowan i S3 

Lawson 1 74, 1 80 

Monterey 183 

Nootka 181 

Nootka Sound 181 

Peggv 1S4 

Red i8s 

Sitka iSi 

Southern 185 

Swamp .' 18^ 

White 184, 185 

Yellow 174, 181 

Cyrilla racemiflora 67 



D 



Dagger, Spanish 194 

Dalhergia lati folia 122 

nigra 122 

5"^"" ; "3 

Dammara aiistralis 152, 153 

Date Plum 118 

Date, Wild 192, 193 

Deal 151 

Decay (also see Fungus Diseases) . . 14 
Deciduous Trees i^, 16 



P.^GE 

Dei iduous Woods 13.16 

DemirocalamiiS 196 

Dendroctomis piceaperda (spruce- 

destro\ing beetles) 155 

Dendroctaniis ponderosa (beetles), 

148, 174 

Deodar 1 74 

DICOTYLEDONS 10 

Diospyros 117 

virginiana 117, 118 

Diseases (also see Fungus Diseases) 14 

DoEcwood no, 112 

Flowering no, 112 

Poison 112 

Dote 14 

Douglas Tree 161 

Dry rot 14 

Duramen 12 

E 

Ebony 117, 118 

Jamaica 118 

Ehenacete 117, 118 

Edge grain 14 

Edging 14 

Elm 41, 42, 45, 180 

American 42 

Cliff 43 

Cork 43, 45 

False 67 

Hickory 43 

Moose 44 

Mountain 45 

Red 44, 45 

Redwooded 44 

Rock 43. 44 

Slip])ery 44 

Small-leaved 45 

A\'ahoo 45 

Water 42, 45 

yS'hke , 42, 43 

Wing 45 

^\■ingcd 45 

Witdi 45 

Encena 30 

ENDOGENS 10, 189 

ENDOGENOUS TREES ... .10, 189 
ENDOGENOUS W'OODS . . .10, 189 

Evergreen 'S. I35 

Evergreen Trees 15, 135 

Evergreen Woods i5> ^35 

Eucalypt 129 

Eucalyptus 129 

Giant 132 

Eucalyptus 129 

amygdalina 129, 130, 132 

citriodora 130 



Eucalyptus cnhssea i 

corynocalyx 130, 1 

divcrsicolor i^'J, ' 

globulus iCQi I 

gomphoccphalr. 1C9, ! 

tuacrarliyiiclui ... i 

vuirgiihita 1:9, I 

rcsinijeni ... i 

rnstrata irg, 1 30, i 

viniinalis 130, i 

KXOGENS 10, 

KXOGENOUS TRKES 10, 

EXOGENOUS W OODS 10. 

Exothca panicuhita 



Ftigus 66 

iilropuiiicea 66, 68 

jcrruginea 68 

False Bo.\ 1 1 " 

Feather-cone 1 67 

Fever Tree 1 34 

Fibre 6, 7 

Fie us 114 

clasticn 114 

glomerata 114 

macrophylla 114 

ruhigiiiosa 114 

sycamorus 71 

f it;-tree 71 

Fir 155, 161, 162 

Balm of Gilcad 163 

Balsam 14?, 16?, 163, 1 6^ 

California Red 1 66 

California Rcd-l>ark 166 

California White 165 

Colorado White 16^ 

Common Balsam 163 

Concolor While 165 

Dantzic 151 

Douglas 160, 161, 162 

Feather-cone 167 

Golden .' 1 66 

Great Silver 1 64 

Lowland 1 64 

Magnificent 1 66 

Memel i^i 

Xohle 167 

Noble Red 167 

Noble Silver . 1 67 

Northern 151 

Oregon White 164 

Prince Albert's 160 

Red 160,161,166,167,168 

Kigi i,Si 

Scots 151 

Scottish • 1 s I 



PAGE 

Fir Shasta 166 

Silver 162, 164, 165 

Stettin 151 

Swedish 151 

Tree 163 

Western Hemlock 169 

Western W hite 164 

White 154, 162, 164, 165 

Yellow 160, 164 

Florida Species 114 

Foliage System 4 

Forester 6 

Forestr^' 6 

Forcstrv- Division Experiments, 8, 9, 10 

Fraxiuus ;j;} 

amcrkana ^^, 35 

lauccidata ^3, 39 

'">'■" h-'s^ 

nrcgoua 40 

puhcsccns 36 

peiinsylvanka 36 

qnadrougulata 37 

sambucijoliii 38 

viridis 39 

Frostshake 14 

Fruitwoods 34 

Fungus Diseases 14, 1.1S, 155 

Ash-White 35 

Catalpa 96 

Cedar 1 75 

Cedar Incense iS^ 

Cypress 184 

Spruce 155 

G 

Gallic Acid i7i 3- 

Generic Name 3 

Genus 3 

Glcditsia 81 

triacanthos 8r, 84 

Gopher Plum ic8 

Gopher Wood 40 

Great Laurel 11^,114 

Greenheart 121, 1:3 

Growth 4) 5. 6 

Guaiac no 

Guajac ... no 

Guajacum 109 

arhorium 113 

officinale no, 113 

sanctum 67, no, 113 

Guadua . . 196 

Gums (also see Resins), 7, 16, 152, 153 

Kauri 153 

Mesquite 82 

Gum (Trees). . . 105, 106, T07, 108, i."9 
Black 105,107,165 



204 



PAGE 

Gum Blue 129, 130, 134 

Cotton 108 

Kauri 153 

Mahogany 129, 131 

Manna 130, 131 

Red 105, 106, 129, 130, 133 

Red California . 106 

Satin 106 

Sour 105, 107, 108 

Star-leaved 106 

Sugar 130, 132 

Sweet 105, 106 

Tree 106, 129 

Tupelo 105, 107, 108 

Walnut 106 

■WTiite 132, 133 

Yellow (Gum) Tree 107 

Gumbo file 100 

Gutta-percha 115 

GynnwclaJus dioiciis 67 



H 



Hackberry 67 

Hackmatack 170, 171, 172 

Hardback 70 

Hardshell SQ 

HARDWOODS 15, "16 

Heartwood 12 

He Balsam 156 

Hedge 119 

Hedge-plant 119 

Hemlock 155, 168, 169 

Alpine 168 

Black 168 

Carolina 169 

Eastern 168 

Southern 169 

Western 168, 169 

Hevea 114 

hraziliensis 114 

Hicoria 57 

alba 60 

glabra 59 

ovala 58 

pecan 57, 61 

Hickory 54, 57, 58, 60 

Black 59, 60 

Brown 59 

Common 60 

Hardbark 60 

Hickory-nut (Tree) 60 

Hickory Nuts 57, 58, 59, 61 

Hognut 60 

Mockernut 60 

Pecan 61 

Pignut 59 

Red 59, 60 



PAOD 

Hickory, Scalybark 58 

Second growth 33, 57 

Shagbark 58 

Shellbark 58 

Switch-bud 59 

Upland 58 

White .58, 59, 60, 180 

Whiteheart 60 

Holly 109, no, III 

American in 

White Ill 

Honey 84 

Honey Pod 85 

Honey Shucks 84 

Hornbeam. 66, 69, 70 

Horse Chestnut 102, 103 

Humis 6 



I 



Identification 10 

Ilex 109 

opaca 109-1 1 1 

aquijolium 109 

Tndian-bean 97, 98 

Indian Cigar Tree 98 

India Rubber 114 

Inlaid Work 109-111 

Inspection 15 

Iron-bark 129, 130 

Iron-bark Red 130 

Ironwood 66, 69, 70, 85, 113 



Jarrah 129, 131 

Joshua (The) 190, 194, 195 

Tree 194, 195 

Juglans 53 

californica 54 

cinerea 53, 56 

'"'S™ 55 

'■eg'<' 53. 54.55 

rupestris 54 

Juniper, 67, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 
179, 1S2 

California 1 76 

Red 1 75 

Western 176 

Juniper Bush 175 

Juniperus 173 

barbadensis 173, 174, 175 

californica 176 

occidentalis 1 76 

scopulorum 173, 174, 175 

virginiana 173, 174, 175 



INDEX. 



205 



Kalmia latijolia "4 

Karri '^Q- 13= 

Kauri Gum 15^1 '53 

Kauri Pine '5-' '53 

Khaya '^4 

senegiileiisis '*4 

Kino '33 

Knots ^5 



Lanza Experiments 9 

Larch 167, 170. 171. 172 

American '7' 

American Western 17- 

Black 171 

European '7- 

Great Western 172 

Red '71 

Red American ' 7- 

Tamarack '7i> '7- 

Western '7°. "7- 

Larix '7° 

americana '7°' '7' 

europa-a . '7- 

laricina '7' 

ocddentalis 17°. '72 

Laurel "2, IM, "S. "^ 

Big "4 

California "4. "5 

Great "2. "4 

Madrona "4. "6 

Mountain Ii4> I'S 

Laurehvood n'' 

Lazlett Experiments 9 

Leaves 4 

Leverwood 7° 

Libocedrus '73 

decurrens '74> ^°- 

Lignin ' 

Lignumvitse 109. " 3 

Lime ^7 

Lime-Ogeechee 108 

Lime Tree 87, 93, 108 

Black 93 

Smooth-leaved 93 

Lime-tree \\ ild 108 

Lin, Black 92 

Lind 87 

White 93 

Linden §7. 93 

American 93 

Linn 93 

Linockra Hgustrina 122 

Liquid amber 105. '06 

Liqiiidamber loS 

styraciflua loSi i°6 



l.iriodendron 86 

Utlipijera 86, 88 

Locust 81, 83, 84 

lilack 81,83,84 

Green 83 

Honey 81,83,84,85 

Honey Shucks 84 

I'ea Flower 83 

Post 83 

Red 83 

Screw Pod 82 

Sweet 84 

Thorn 84 

Thorny 84 

White 83 

Yellow 83 

lagging Methods 162, 187 

Lumber - 

Lumber-rolled 14 

Lumbering, see Logging 162, 1 87 

Lysiloma sabicu 113 

M 

Ahiba 125 

buxifolia 125 

Madura "7 

auranliaca 117, 119 

Madeira 126 

Madrona "4. "6 

Mexican 116 

Madrone Tree "6 

Madrove "6 

Magnolia "4 

Mountain 92 

Magnolia 86, 1 14 

grandiHora 114 

acuminata 92 

Mahogany 67, 74, 124, 126, 129 

African' 124, 126 

American 79, 124, 126 

Cuban 124, 126 

Honduras 124, 126 

Indian 124 

Mexican 124, 126 

Mountain 80, 124 

Red .125, 131 

San Domingan 124, 126 

Spanish 124, 126 

AMiite. . 56, 12;;, i?7 

Mammoth Trees 186, 188 

Manna, American, Fplse 142 

Manna Gum 130, 131 

Manufacturers' Association T5 

Manzanita 116 

Maple 46, 5 1 

Ash-leaved 52 

Bird's-eve 46, 48 

Black . ■ 48 



2C36 



INDEX. 



Maple, Blister 46, 48 

Broad-leaved 51 

Curly 46, 48, 4g. 50 

Cut-leaved 52 

Hard 47, 48 

(Maple Keys) 47 

Negundo 47, 52 

Oregon 51 

Red 47, 50 

Red River 52 

River 40 

Rock 48 

Silver 47, 49 

Soft 47, 49, 50 

Swamp 49-5° 

Sugar (Sugar Maple) 47, 48 

(Maple Sugar), 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 56 

Water 49. 5° 

White 49, 50. 51 

Three-leaved 52 

Mastic Peruvian 115 

MediiUary Rays 7, 12, 13, 15 

Melia azedarach 116 

Merisier 79 

Rouge 79 

Mesquite Si, 82, 85 

Screw Pod 82 

Mildew 14 

Mill Values 2 

Mockernut 60 

Mock Orange 119 

Modulii 8, 9, 10 

Moisture 5,7 

MONOCOTYLEDONS, 

10, 189, igo, 196 

Morns 99 

alha 99 

nigra 99 

rubra 99, lot 

Mucilage 153 

Mulberry 99, loi 

Black 99, 10 1 

Red 99, loi 

Russian 99 

White 99 

Mulberry-tree, Virginia loi 

Murier Sauvage 10 1 

Myrtle Tree 115 

N 

Naval Stores 139, 145 

Nectandra 121 

rodiali 121, 123 

Needleleaf Conifers 15, 135 

Trees IS. '35 

Woods 15. 135 

Negundo aceroides 52 

Neowashingtonia filamenlosa 193 

Nettle-tree 67 



Noble Silver Fir 167 

Nomenclature 108 

Nyssa 105 

aquatica 108 

ogeche 108 

sylvatica 105, 107 

O 

Oak 17 

African 121 

Basket 20 

Black 18, 25, 28 

Black, Live 31 

Box 22 

Box, White 22 

Brash 22 

British 17.32 

Bur 18, 23 

California Live iS, 30 

California Post 24 

California W hite 24 

Canyon 31 

Canyon Live 31 

Chene etoilc 22 

Chene Vert 29 

Chestnut iS, 21, 32 

Coast Live 30 

Common 32 

Cow 1 8, 20 

Dantzic 32 

Durmast 32 

Dyer's 28 

Encina 30 

English 17> 32 121 

Evergreen 30 

Golden Cup 31 

Hiehland 31 

Indian 121, 122 

Iron 22, 31 

Live 17, 18, 29, 30,31 

Maul 31 

Mossycup 23 

Mossycup White 23 

Mountain 21 

Oregon White 24 

Overcup 22, 23 

Pacific Post 18, 24 

Pin 18, 26 

Post 18, 22 

Quercitron 2S 

Red 18, 23, 27, 32 

Rigi 32 

Rock 21 

Rock Chestnut 21 

Scrub 23 

Spanish 18, 25, 27 

Spotted ' 28 

Stave 19 



207 



Oak, Swamp 24. 26 

S\vam\) Chestnul 20, 2 1 

Swamp Spanish 26 

Swamp W hite 20 

Tanbark 21, 28 

Water 26 

Water Spanish 26 

Weeping 24 

Western White 24 

White 17. '8, 19, 22, 24 

Valley 24 

Valparaiso 31 

Yellow 18, 28 

Yellowbark 28 

Oyeeihee Lime 108 

Oil Nut 56 

Old field ia ajricana 121, 122 

Oka euro pica 34 

Olive California 1 ' 5 

Olivetree 108 

Wild i°8 

Olivewood 34 

Olneya tesota 67 

One-berr\' 67 

Orange, Mock "9 

Orangewood 34 

Oreodaphne 115 

Oreodoxa rcgia 190. '9' 

Osage 117. "9 

Osage Apple Tree 119 

Osage Orange 117, 119. 180 

Osier 94 

\\ illow 94 

Oslrya 66 

virgiiiiana 66, 70 



Palm 189, 190, igi, 192, 103 

California Fan i93 

Cane 191. 198 

Date 1921 193 

Desert i93 

Fanleaf 19°. '9'' '93 

Rattan (also see Rattan). .191, 198 

Royal 19°. 191 

Sargent 'O' 

\\ashington i90> '93 

Palmacea 191 

Palmetto 19°. '91, 192 

Bank's 192 

Cabbage 191. '92 

Mexican i9'. '92 

Silver Thatch 192 

Silvertop 19'. '92 

Silktop 19'. '92 

Tree 192 

Papyrus 66 



PAGB 

Paulownia 97 

Paulownia lomentosa • 97 

Pealfower (Locust) 83 

Pear 34 > 4° 

Wild 107 

Pecan 57. 61 

Nut 37. 61 

Tree 57. 61 

Pecanier 61 

Pepper 115 

California 115 

Longleaf 115 

Peppermint Tree 132 

Pcpperidge 107 

Pepjierwood ' ' 5 

Pcrsinmion 117. > '8 

Black 112 

Mexican no, 112 

Peruvian Mastic 115 

Phccnix 192. 193 

Phanix dactylijera 192, 193 

Picca 154. 155 

alba 154. 157 

canadensis 157 

exccha 154 

engclmanni 154. 158 

mariana 156 

nigra 154. 'S^ 

ruhcns 156 

sitchensis 1 59 

Pignut 59 

Pine 136, 141. 155. '57 

.'Maska 168, 169 

Arizona flexilis 141 

Bastard .... 139, 145, 147. 148, 165 

Bhotan 151 

Big 142, 148 

Black 143. '47. 15° 

Black Norway 15° 

Blaik Slash i47 

Blister 163 

Brown '44. '46 

Bull .... 139, 141, 146, 147, 148, 149 

Canadian Red 149 

Carolina 146 

Common Yellow 146 

Cornstalk '47 

Cowdie 153 

Cuban 138, 139, 144, 145 

Dantzic 151 

Digger '49 

Douglas 160, 161 

European 139, 151 

Fat 144. 15° 

Finger Cone i43 

Fir^ 163 

Florida 144 

Florida Longleaved '44 

Florida Yellow 144 



208 



Pine, Foothills Yellow 

Foxtail 

Frankincense 

Georgia . 

Georgia Heart 

Georgia Longleaved 

Georgia Pitch 

Georgia Yellow . . 

Gigantic 

Ginger 

Great Sugar 

Grey 

Greyleaf 

Hard, 136, 138, 144, 146, 149, 150, 

Heart '. - 

Heaw 

Heavy-wooded 

Indian 

Jack 

Jersey 

Kauri 152, 

Limber 

Limber-twig 

Little Sugar 142, 

Loblolly 138, 139, 145, 147, 

Lodgepole 

Longleaf 138, 139, 144, 

Ix)ngleaved 148, 

Lnogleaved Pitch 

Longleaved Yellow 

Longshat 147, 

Longshucks 

Longstraw 144, 

Marsh . . 

Meadow 145, 147, 

Mexican White 

Montana Black 

Monterey 

Mountain 

Mountain Weymouth 

Murray 

Northern 140, 

North Carolina . .... 146, 147, 

North Carolina Pitch 

North Carolina Yellow 

Norway 

Nut , . ' 

Oldfield 146, 

Oregon 139, 160, 

Pacific 

Pacific Coast 

Parry's 

Pattern Makers 

Pitch, 136, 139, 144, 145, 146, 148, 

Pond 

Poor 

Puget Sound 

Pumpkin 

Red 148,149, 



Pine, Rocky Mountain 141 

Rocky Mountain White 141 

Rosemary 144, 146, 147 

Sabine 1 49 

Sap 147. 150 

Scotch 151 

Scrub 1 49 

Shade 142 

She 1 45 

She Pitch 145 

Shortleaf 138, 139, 146, 147 

Shortleaved Yellow . 146 

Shortshat 146 

Silver 137, 143, 163 

Slash 145, 146, 147 

Soft 136, 137, 140, 143 

Southern 136, 144 

Southern Hard 1 44 

Southern Heart 144 

Southern Pitch 1 44 

Southern Yellow 144, 148 

Spruce, 139, 140, 143, 145, 146, 147, 
148, 169 

Stone 151 

Sugar 137, 142 

Swamp V45, 147 

Tamarack 143 

Texas Longleaved 144 

Texas Yellow 144 

Torch 147 

Turpentine 144 

Virginia 146, 147 

Vii-ginia Yellow 146 

Western Pitch 148 

Western White 141, 143 

Western Yellow 148 

Weymouth 140, 143 

White, 137, 140, 141, 142,143, 151, 158 

A\"hite-bark 137 

Yellow. . . 139, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150 

Finite 142 

Pintree, Confederate 84 

Pi>"'s 136, iss 

albicaulis 137 

cembra 151 

cembroides 137 

divaricaia 149 

echinata 138, 139, 146 

excelsa 151 

fcxilis 137, 141 

gl<^bra 143 

htierophylla 138, 139, 145 

lambertiana 137, 143 

mil-is 138, 146 

monticola 137, 143 

murrayana 143 

palustris 3, 138, 139, 144, 145 

ponderosa 148 

quadrijolia 137 



INDEX. 



209 



Pinus raiiiata 1 ■(<) 

resiiwsa '49 

rigila ^i(>, 150 

siibiiutina. MO 

Sfnitiuii mS 

strohiformis ■ 137 

sirohiis 137, 140. 141 

sylvestris 136, 151 

torfa 138, 139- '45. '47 

taxijolia ' 60 

virginiana 149 

Piquanl amiourelte 84 

Pitch tubes 155 

Pith Cavity ". '5 

Pith Rav 7. ' = . '3. 'S. '35 

Plane Tree 7'. 1- 

Planks 14 

Platane Cotonier 7- 

Plaianus 7' 

occidentalis 7'i 7- 

orieiitalis 7' 

racemosa . . 7'' 73 

Plaqueminier "8 

Plum Date i ' 8 

Plum Gopher 108 

Poplar 86,88,89, 163 

Balsam 86, 87, 91 

Blue 88 

Carolina 90 

Hickory 88 

Large 8g 

Large Toothed 89 

Necklare 9° 

Tulip 86,88 

White 86, 89 

Yellow 86, 88 

Popple 86, 89 

Populus 86 

halsamikra. . . 87, 91, 163 

hahamijera candicaiis 91 

dcltoities 90 

gra nilidentata 89 

monilifera 9° 

Iremtiloides 87, 8g 

tricbocarpa 9' 

Powiohiiora 57 

Possvmiwood 118 

Priiklv Thatch 192 

Pride of India "6 

Prima vera '25, 127 

Prosopis .... 81 

juliflora 67,81, 85 

odorata 82 

Primus I' 7 

serolina 1 17, 120 

Pseudophoenix sargenlii 191 

Pseiuiotsuga ' 60 

douglasii 160, 161, 162 

ntacrocarpa 1 60 



Pscudotsuga taxijolia 1391 161 

Pterocarpus erinticeus 122 

sanlalinus '23 

Pyrtis 34 

iimericana 4° 

ancuparia 4° 

aiigiisliinlia 34 

comnuinis ,34> 4° 

cnronaria 4° 

nuilus 34. 40 

rivuhris 34 

samhucifolia 4° 

vulgaris 4<* 



Quarter Sawing i,^ 

Quercitron 28 

Qncrctts 3,4. ^ 7 

agrijolia . 1 8, 30 

alba 3, 17, 18, 19 

chrysnicpsis '8, 31 

dig'iliila 18, 27 

laloila 27 

gurrviituj 18, 24 

lohhiln 24 

marrocarpa '8, 23 

mkhauxii 18, 20 

minor 18, 22 

oblusiloha 22 

palustris 1 8, : 6 

prinus 18, 2r 

pubcscciis 32 

robiir 4.17 

robur var. sessiliflora '7. 32 

robur var. pedunculala ' 7. 32 

rubra 3. '8, 25 

liiicloria 28 

vclutina 18, 28 

vircits 29 

virginiana 18, 29 

wislizeiii 31 

Quince 40 



R 



Radial Section 

Rattan 19°. 'O', 

Redwood . .126, 137, 151. 162, 186, 

California 186, 

Coast 186, 

Giant 162, 186, 

Red Flower 

Redwood, .'Vge of 

Resin, 16, no, 135, 138, 139, 145, 

153. 

Fresh-product 



5° 
187 
152. 
162 

152 



PAGE 

Resin, Fossil 152 

Guajac no 

K-auri 152, 153 

Semi-fossil 152 

Varnish 153 

Resin ducts 7, 16, 135, 162 

Rlwpis ig8 

flabelliformis 198 

Rhododendron 114 

Rhododendron maximum 112, 114 

Rhus integrijolia 124 

Rift-Rrain 13 

Robinia 81 

pseudacacia 81 , 83 

Rolled Lumber 14 

Root System 4, 5 

Rose Bay no, 114 

Rosewood 1 13, 122 

African 122 

Brazilian 122 

California 122 

Canary 122 

Indian 122 

Jamaica 122 

Philippine 122 

Rosin . 139 

Rot ("see Fungus Diseases.) 

Rot Pin ■ 182 

Rotary Cut 13, 194 

Rowan Tree 40 

Rubber 114 

Assam 114 

Mexican 114 

Para 114 

Rust 14 

S 

Saba! mexicana 191, 192 

palmetto 191, 192 

Sabicu . . 113 

Saf^an 122 

Salicylic Acid 80, 94 

Salix 94 

alha 94, 95 

caprea 94 

fiiviatilis 94 

jragiUs 94 

'"^'•'! 95 

russchana 94 

Sandalwood 123 

Red 123 

Santalin 123 

Santalum 123 

Santalum album 123 

Sapwood II, 12 

Sargent for (P. C. S.), E.xperiments, 8 

Sassafac 100 

Sassafrac 100 



Sassafras 99, 100 

California 115 

Sassafras 99 

officinale 100 

sassajras 100 

Satinwood 54, 125 

East Indian 125 

Florida 125 

West Indian 125 

Tasmanian . . 125 

Saunder's Wood 123 

Savin 1 75 

Saxifra.x 100 

Tree 100 

Schipfjeria jrutescens H2 

Schinus molle 115 

terebinlhijolius 115 

Sea Worm (see Teredo) . 190 

Second-growth .Ash 33 

Second-growth Hickory 57 

Second-growth Woods 57 

Sequoia 186, 187, 188 

Sequoia 186, 188 

gigantea 186, 187, 188 

sempervirens 186, 187, 188 

washingtoniana 186, 187, 188 

.Shagbark 58 

Sharpless (J. P.), Experiments. . . 8 

Shawneewood 97 

Shellac 153 

varnish 153 

Shellbark 58 

Shinglewood 178 

Silver Thatch 192 

Simmon 118 

Sissoo 113 

Slab 14 

Slash-cut 14 

Slice-cut 14 

Smoking-bean 98 

Soft-rot 14 

SOFTWOODS 15.135 

Sorbus (see Pyrus) 34. 4° 

Soymida 124 

fcbrifuga 124 

Spanish Bayonet 190, 194 

Spanish Dagger 194 

Species 3 

Specific Gravity 7 

Specific Name 3 

Spice-tree 115 

Spruce, 154, 15s, 156, 157, 160, 161, 169 

Big Cone 160 

Black 143, 154, 156 

Blue 156 

Bog 157 

California Hemlock Spruce .... 169 

Cat 157 

Cork -barked Douglas 161 



Spruce, Double 156, 157 

Douglas 139, lOo, 161 

Kngclmann 158 

Great Tideland 159 

He Ralsam 156 

Hemlock i6g 

Menzies 159 

Mountain 158 

Norway . 154 

Prickly 143 

Red 154, 156, 160 

Single 157, 163 

Sitka 159 

Skunk 157 

Tideland 159 

Water 156 

Western 159 

White 143, 154, 156, 157, 158 

Yellow 160 

Spruce-destroying Beetles 155 

Stinkwood 107 

Straight-grain 13 

Stream flow . . 6 

Strength of Woods 7, 8, 9, 10 

Stringy-bark 129, 130 

Stringy-bark Victoria 131 

Sugar 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 56 

Sugarberry 67 

Sugar Tree 48 

Swamp Cedar 1 79 

Swamp White Cedar 179 

Swamp Tamarack 1 70, 177 

Swamp Gum 107 

Swkteiu'a 124 

niiihogiiiii 124, 126 

seiiegilensis 121 

Sycamore 46, 71, 72, 73 

California 73 



Tabeuia donnell-smilhii 127 

Tacmahac gi 

Tamarack 143, 170, 171, i 72 

Red 171 

Swamp 1 70 

Western 172 

White 171 

Tanbark 7 

Tangential Section 13 

Tar 138, 139, 145 

Taxodiutn 183 

distichum 184, 185 

Taxus 1 80 

brevijolia iSo 

floridana 1 80 

Teak 121, 122 

African 121, 122 



PAGE 

Teak, Burnia 122 

Indian 121 

Malabar 122 

Rangoon 122 

Tectona 121 

Teclona grandis 121, 122 

Teek 122 

Tensile Strength 2,7 

Teredo (Mollusk Woodborcr), 

121, igo, Tgr 

Tewart 133 

Thatih Brittle 192 

Prickly 192 

Silver 192 

Thorn 84 

Thrinax microcarpa igi, 192 

purviflorji 191, 192 

Th iiya 1 73, 174 

gigantea 1 74, 1 78 

occiJeiitalis 1 74, 1 77 

plicata 1 78 

Tiel 87 

Tiel-tree 87 

Tilia 86 

americana 93 

helerophylla 93 

Timber 2 

Tooart 133 

Toothache Tree 40 

Top Soil 6 

Tox\'lon pomijcriim iig 

Tracheid 6 

Tree 4 

Tree of Heaven 8g 

Tree Yucca 195 

Trunk 4 

Tsuga 1 55, 1 68 

canadensis 168, 169 

curoliniana • i6g 

hetcrophylla 168, 169 

mcrtensiana 168 

Tuart 129. 13^ 

Tulip-tree 86, 88 

Tupelo 107, 108 

Large 108 

Sour 108 

Swamp 108 

Turpentine 7, 13S, 139, 145 

Turpentine, Venice 152, 172 



U 



Ulmus 41 

americana 41, 42 

alata 45 

fiilva 44 

racemosa 43 

puhescens 44 



PAGE 

Umbrella Tree 1 1 6 

Umbellularia calijornica 114, 115 

Unknown Tree 67 

U. S. Census Experiments S, 9 

U. S. Forestry Division Experi- 
ments 8,9 



Varnish 152, 153 

Oil 152 

Spint 153 

Veneer ... 13, 53, 75, 109, I25, 194, 195 

Venice Turpentine 152, 172 

Vertical-grain . 13 

Vessel 6, 1 35 

Vitas 177 



W 

W'ahoo 45 

Walnut 53, 55, 56, 58 

Arizona 54 

Black 53, 55 

California 54 

Circassian 54, 122 

Dwarf 54 

English 53. 54, 55 

Little 54 

Mexican 54 

Persian 55 

Royal 53. 55 

Satin 106 

Shagbark 58 

Sweet 58 

Western 54 

White 53.56 

Wane 14 

Washingtonia filifera 191, 193 

Watertown Arsenal Experiments ..8,9 

Waves 14 

Weights of Woods 8,9, 10 

Wet Rot 14 

Whahoo 45 

UTiite Mahogany 3 56 

Whitewood 86, 88, 90, 93 

Wickup 93 

Wild Date 193 

Wild Olive Tree 108 



PAGE 

Wild Pear Tree 107 

Willow 94, 95 

American 94 

Bedford 94 

Black 95 

Crack 94 

Goat 94 

Longleaf . . . 94 

Osier 94 

Sandbar 1 

Swamp 5 

^\'hite 94, 5 

Windfall 155 

Windshake 14 

Wood 1,2 



Xanlhoxylum americana 40 

caribaitm 125 

ciava-herculis 40 



Yellowbark 28 

Yellow Gum Tree 107 

Yellowwood 112, 119, 151 

Yew 1 80 

California 180 

Florida 180 

Western 180 

Oregon 180 

Yucca 189, 190, 194, 195 

Aloe-leaf 194 

Broadfruit 194 

Cactus 195 

Mohave 1 94 

Schott 194 

Tree 194, 195 

Yucca ... 194, 195 

almjolia 194, 195 

arhorescens 194, 195 

brevifolia 194, 195 

constricta 194 

gloriosa 194 

macrocarpa 194 

mohavensis 194 

treculeana 1 94 



